Assessing the predictions from Posner's theory of phasic alertness using data from Los and Schut (2008).

Alertness has been construed as one of three fundamental components of attention. When generated by a warning signal, phasic changes in alertness ubiquitously decrease reaction time. But how does it do so? Based on earlier findings, in 1975, Posner proposed a theory of phasic alertness with two postulates: (i) phasic alertness does not affect the accumulation of information; (ii) phasic alertness accelerates when a response based on the accumulating information will be generated. When targets are continuously presented, this theory predicts that alertness will reduce reaction at the expense of an increase in errors-that is, generate a speed-accuracy trade-off. Los and Schut, Cognitive Psychology, 57, 20-55, (2008), while endorsing Posner's theory, claimed to have failed to replicated the tell-tale trade-off reported by Posner et al. Memory and Cognition, 1, 2-12, (1973, Experiment 1). The primary goal of this commentary was to use all the data from Los and Schut to see if the predicted speed-accuracy trade-off would be verified or not. With the increased power, it was confirmed that the conditions that benefited the most in reaction time from alertness also had higher error rates. It is noteworthy that recent studies have generated replications and extensions of the methods and findings of Posner et al; thus, it appears that the empirical pattern predicted by Posner's theory of phasic alertness is relatively robust.

An Automobile's Tail Lights: Sacrificing Safety for Playful Design?

OBJECTIVE: The counterintuitive "Union Jack"-inspired turn signals on versions of BMW's Mini vehicles was investigated to reveal potential impacts on human performance. BACKGROUND: When some Mini drivers indicate a change in direction, they do so with an oppositely oriented arrow. This conflict, between the task-irrelevant spatial shape and task-relevant location of the signal, mimics a "converse" spatial-Stroop effect that, in combination with the ubiquitous use of arrows on road signs, may be confusing. METHOD: Participants (n = 30) responded-via right and left keypresses-to the directions of road signs and turn signals in both pure and mixed blocks. Reaction times and accuracies were recorded to determine performance in each condition (compatible, neutral, incompatible). RESULTS: Performance suffered when the location and direction of the stimuli did not correspond. When responding to turn signals the cost to performance was especially salient in mixed blocks. Thus, when driving on roads where the meanings of arrows on road signs is important, turn signals pointing in a direction opposite from the directional intention indicated by the signals' location are likely to be confusing. CONCLUSION: The design of some Mini's "Union Jack" style taillights opposes well-established principles of cognitive functioning, caused confusion in our laboratory study and therefore may be a safety hazard-a possibility that ought to be explored in more realistic (e.g., driving simulator) situations. APPLICATION: BMW designers should consider universally adopting the neutral, "horizontal line," illumination style that is currently available in the aftermarket.

Individual differences in working memory capacity and visual search while reading.

Individual differences in working memory capacity are related to variations in a wide range of cognitive tasks. Surprisingly, effects of individual differences in working memory capacity are somewhat limited in visual search tasks. Here we tested the hypothesis that such an effect would be robust when search was one component of a dual task. Participants were presented strings of letters using rapid serial visual presentation and were required to detect all instances of a particular target letter. In Experiment 1, participants performed the letter search task in three contexts, while: (a) reading a prose passage, (b) processing a stream of random words, or (c) processing a random stream of non-words. In the absence of the dual task of reading prose, and in line with much of the literature on individual differences in working memory capacity and visual search, search performance was unaffected by working memory capacity. As hypothesized, however, higher working memory capacity participants detected more target letters than lower capacity participants in the "true" dual task (searching while reading prose). The hypothesized results from the prose passage were replicated in Experiment 2. These results show that visual search efficiency is dramatically affected by working memory capacity when searching is combined with another cognitive task but not when it is performed in isolation. Our findings are consistent with recent suggestions that visual search efficiency will be affected by working memory capacity so long as searching is embedded in a context that entails managing resource allocation between concurrent tasks.

Effects of fatigue on attention and vigilance as measured with a modified attention network test.

As part of a larger study on the effects of fatigue on various attentional and behavioural measures, we had participants complete a modified version of Luna et al.'s (J Neurosci Methods 306:77-87, Luna et al., J Neurosci Methods 306:77-87, 2018) ANTI-Vea task (mANTI-Vea) at the beginning and end (pre/post) of each of two 8-h testing sessions. Between these administrations of the mANTI-Vea our participants spent ~ 6 h performing an intervening task. Our intent in this project was two-fold: first, to replicate the pattern of effects reported in Luna et al.'s original presentation of the ANTI-Vea; second, to assay the impact of fatigue on vigilance and attention by observing shifts in mANTI-Vea performance as a function of time on task and before versus after the intervening task. With time-on-task (the mANTI-Vea is divided into six sub-blocks) we observed that participants became increasingly conservative in their biases to respond towards infrequent targets, showed a decline in sensitivity, and lapsed in responding in the psychomotor vigilance task with greater frequency. In the pre/post comparison, we observed an increase in the proportion of lapses, but not in participants' response biases. Attentional network scores were found to be somewhat insensitive to our fatigue manipulations; the effect of time-on-task was only significant for orienting scores on RT, and our pre/post comparison was only significant for RT derived executive functioning scores.

Endogenous orienting in the archer fish.

The literature has long emphasized the neocortex's role in volitional processes. In this work, we examined endogenous orienting in an evolutionarily older species, the archer fish, which lacks neocortex-like cells. We used Posner's classic endogenous cuing task, in which a centrally presented, spatially informative cue is followed by a target. The fish responded to the target by shooting a stream of water at it. Interestingly, the fish demonstrated a human-like "volitional" facilitation effect: their reaction times to targets that appeared on the side indicated by the precue were faster than their reaction times to targets on the opposite side. The fish also exhibited inhibition of return, an aftermath of orienting that commonly emerges only in reflexive orienting tasks in human participants. We believe that this pattern demonstrates the acquisition of an arbitrary connection between spatial orienting and a nonspatial feature of a centrally presented stimulus in nonprimate species. In the literature on human attention, orienting in response to such contingencies has been strongly associated with volitional control. We discuss the implications of these results for the evolution of orienting, and for the study of volitional processes in all species, including humans.

The puzzle of spontaneous alternation and inhibition of return: How they might fit together.

Two isolated spatial phenomena share a similar "been there; done that" effect on spatial behavior. Originally discovered in rodent learning experiments, spontaneous alternation is a tendency for the organism to visit a different arm in a T-maze on subsequent trials. Originally discovered in human studies of attention, inhibition of return is a tendency for the organism to orient away from a previously attended location. Whereas spontaneous alternation was identified by O'Keefe & Nadel as dependent on an intact hippocampus, inhibition of return is dependent on neural structures that participate in oculomotor control (the superior colliculus, parietal and frontal cortex). Despite the isolated literatures, each phenomenon has been assumed to reflect a basic novelty-seeking process, avoiding places previously visited or locations attended. In this commentary, we explore and compare the behavioral manifestations and neural underpinnings of these two phenomena, and suggest what is still needed to determine whether they operate in parallel or serial.

Dissociating Orienting Biases From Integration Effects With Eye Movements.

Despite decades of research, the conditions under which shifts of attention to prior target locations are facilitated or inhibited remain unknown. This ambiguity is a product of the popular feature discrimination task, in which attentional bias is commonly inferred from the efficiency by which a stimulus feature is discriminated after its location has been repeated or changed. Problematically, these tasks lead to integration effects; effects of target-location repetition appear to depend entirely on whether the target feature or response also repeats, allowing for several possible inferences about orienting bias. To parcel out integration effects and orienting biases, we designed the present experiments to require localized eye movements and manual discrimination responses to serially presented targets with randomly repeating locations. Eye movements revealed consistent biases away from prior target locations. Manual discrimination responses revealed integration effects. These data collectively revealed inhibited reorienting and integration effects, which resolve the ambiguity and reconcile episodic integration and attentional orienting accounts.

Attentional bias toward alcohol-related stimuli in heavy drinkers: evidence from dynamic eye movement recording.

BACKGROUND: It has been proposed that attentional biases toward alcohol stimuli are contributing factors maintaining problematic drinking behavior. OBJECTIVE: The main goal of the present set of studies was to provide an examination of dynamic attentional mechanisms associated with alcohol consumption derived from eye movement monitoring. METHOD: Undergraduate students were recruited for two studies. In Experiment 1, 80 students were exposed to complex scenes (containing alcohol-related cues or not) viewed at a self-determined presentation rate. In Experiment 2, 80 students were exposed to the stimuli for a fixed presentation time and asked to memorize the photographs. In both studies, participants completed the Khavari Alcohol Test (KAT) to measure their drinking behaviors. RESULTS: Experiment 1 revealed that alcohol consumption was unrelated to eye movement measures on alcohol-related objects within pictures. However, results of Experiment 2 indicated that saccades into and out of the alcohol-related zones were more frequent as alcohol consumption increased. The time spent and the speed of the first fixation in the alcohol-related zone did not explain the variance in alcohol consumption. CONCLUSION: Attentional biases associated with alcohol consumption might be better understood in terms of dynamic attention mechanisms. More precisely, heavy drinker's attention seems to be constantly drawn back to alcohol-related objects once they are first fixated and when attention is enforced through other cognitive demands. From a clinical viewpoint, dynamic attentional biases might contribute to the development or maintenance of alcohol-related problems and this observation might help guide attention-based interventions.

The Missing-Phoneme Effect in Aural Prose Comprehension.

When participants search for a target letter while reading for comprehension, they miss more instances if the target letter is embedded in frequent function words than in less frequent content words. This phenomenon, called the missing-letter effect, has been considered a window on the cognitive mechanisms involved in the visual processing of written language. In the present study, one group of participants read two texts for comprehension while searching for a target letter, and another group listened to a narration of the same two texts while listening for the target letter's corresponding phoneme. The ubiquitous missing-letter effect was replicated and extended to a missing-phoneme effect Item-based correlations between the reading and listening tasks were high, which led us to conclude that both tasks involve cognitive processes that reading and listening have in common and that both processes are rooted in psycholinguistically driven allocation of attention.

Spatial gradients of oculomotor inhibition of return in deaf and normal adults.

We explored the effect of deafness on the spatial (gradient) and temporal (decay) properties of oculomotor inhibition of return (IOR) using a task developed by Vaughan (Theoretical and applied aspects of eye movement research. Elsevier, North Holland, pp 143-150, 1984) in which participants made a sequence of saccades to carefully placed targets . Unlike IOR tasks in which ignored cues are used to explore the aftereffects of covert orienting, this task better approximates real-world behavior in which participants are free to make eye movements to potentially relevant inputs. Because IOR is a bias against returning attention and gaze to a previously attended location, we expected to find, and we did find, slower saccades toward previously fixated locations. Replicating Vaughan, a gradient of inhibition around a previously fixated location was observed and this inhibition began to decay after 1200 ms. Importantly, there were no significant differences between the deaf and the normal hearing subjects, on neither the magnitude of oculomotor IOR, nor its decay over time, nor its gradient around the previously fixated location .

Eye movements are primed toward the center of multiple stimuli even when the interstimulus distances are too large to generate saccade averaging.

Prior oculomotor research has established that saccades tend to land near the center of multiple saccade targets when they are near each other. This saccade averaging phenomenon (or global effect) has been ascribed to short-distance lateral excitation between neurons in the superior colliculus. Further, at greater inter-stimulus distances, eye movements tend toward the individual elements. This transition to control by local elements (individuation) with inter-stimulus distance has been attributed to long-range lateral inhibition between neurons in winner-take-all models of oculomotor behavior. We hypothesized that the traditional method of requiring a saccade to an array of multiple, simultaneous targets may entail response ambiguity that intensifies with distance. We resolved the ambiguity by focussing on reaction time of our human participants to a single saccade target after one or more simultaneous priming stimuli. At a 50-ms prime-target interval, saccadic reaction time was shortest for targets closer to the center of the prime stimuli independent of the distance between the primes. This effect was gone at 400 ms. These findings challenge the typical inferences about the neural control of oculomotor behavior that have been derived from the boundary between saccade averaging and individuation and provide a new method to explore eye movements with lessened impact from decision processes.

Awareness of distractors is necessary to generate a strategy to avoid responding to them: A commentary on Lin and Murray (2015).

Lin and Murray published in the 2015 January Issue of Psychological Science a study that claims to have made the surprising discovery of unconscious effects that are stronger than equivalent conscious effects. Specifically, the authors claim to have uncovered dissociable components of aware and unaware orienting and inhibition in exogenous cueing. They suggest an awareness-dependent location-based inhibition mechanism referred to as a negative attentional aftereffect. Here we argue for a simpler explanation, based on established literature, that all they have shown is response inhibition to a consciously perceived cue presented at a fixed location.

Changes in the Networks of Attention across the Lifespan: A Graphical Meta-Analysis.

Three Posnerian networks of attention (alerting, orienting, and executive control) have been distinguished on the bases of behavioural, neuropsychological, and neuroscientific evidence. Here, we examined the trajectories of these networks throughout the human lifespan using the various Attention Network Tests (ANTs), which were specifically developed to measure the efficacy of these networks. The ANT Database was used to identify relevant research, resulting in the inclusion of 36 publications. We conducted a graphical meta-analysis using network scores from each study, based on reaction time plotted as a function of age group. Evaluation of attentional networks from childhood to early adulthood suggests that the alerting network develops relatively quickly, and reaches near-adult level by the age of 12. The developmental pattern of the orienting network seems to depend on the information value of the spatial cues. Executive control network scores show a consistent decrease (improvement) with age in childhood. During adulthood (ages 19-75), changes in alerting depend on the modality of the warning signal, while a moderate increase in orienting scores was seen with increasing age. Whereas executive control scores, as measured in reaction time, increase (deterioration) from young adulthood into later adulthood an opposite trend is seen when scores are based on error rates.

Introducing the portable AttentionTrip: An engaging tool for measuring the networks of attention.

BACKGROUND: Measurement of the efficacy of the networks of attention is a frequent component of research in cognitive and clinical neuroscience. Developed in 2002, the Attention Network Test (ANT), has become the most widely used tool for this purpose. NEW METHOD: In 2017 a more engaging, game-like tool based on the ANT, called the AttentionTrip was described. The network scores from five studies which used AttentionTrip are shown to be robust. NEWER METHOD: That version of AttentionTrip required a steering wheel and desk-top computer. Here we describe a new, portable version of the AttentionTrip that is administered using a hand-held tablet (iPad) RESULTS: Three samples of participants (total = 44) completed the portable version of AttentionTrip. The network scores generated using the portable AttentionTrip were also robust. Effect sizes compare favourably with those generated by the ANT and the desktop version. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the use of the portable AttentionTrip as an alternative to the ANT when user engagement is important, such as when participants are prone to boredom, and when repeated administrations are required.

Slippage of the attentional beam when searching in space and in time.

"Slippage" of attention in time and space has been studied separately, using visual search (e.g., Snyder, 1972) and rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) (e.g., McLean, Broadbent, & Broadbent, 1982). The primary purpose of the current study was to see if we could replicate these findings of slippage and if we did, to use individual differences to explore relationships between slippage in the temporal and spatial domains. The participants identified and localized targets in visual search and in RSVP sequences. In Experiment 1, we used visual search and RSVP tasks closely replicating the methods of Snyder and McLean et al. In Experiment 2, we closely equated the two tasks as far as possible while maintaining the crucial space/time difference. Consistent with the previous studies, and reflecting binding errors (or slippage) in both space and time, erroneously reported identities were predominantly from items adjacent to the targets. Correlations between measures of the slippage in space (visual search) and time (RSVP) were near zero, suggesting that different attentional 'beams' bind features in space and time, a possibility that is consistent with other behavioural as well as neuropsychological evidence.

Is gaze cuing more like endogenous or exogenous orienting?

People shift their attention in the direction of another person's gaze. This phenomenon, called gaze cuing, shares properties with purely endogenous (i.e., "deliberate") and purely exogenous (i.e., "reflexive") control of spatial attention. For example, as with purely endogenous orienting, gaze cues appear at visual fixation; yet, as with purely exogenous orienting, gaze cues elicit shifts of attention rapidly after their appearance. Prior experiments have shown that when controlled endogenously versus exogenously, the effects of attention upon the processing of targets are dramatically different. Briand and Klein (1987; see also Briand, 1998) showed that endogenous orienting is additive with opportunities for illusory conjunctions, whereas exogenous orienting is interactive. Klein (1994) showed that endogenous orienting is interactive with nonspatial expectancies, whereas exogenous orienting is additive. In the present project, we applied this double-dissociation strategy to attention controlled by gaze cues. In Experiment 1, gaze cuing effects (in accuracy) were additive with opportunities for illusory conjunctions (akin to endogenous control), whereas in Experiment 2, gaze cuing was additive with the nonspatial expectancy effect (akin to exogenous orienting). Therefore, in the nature of its effects upon performance, gaze cuing functions like a hybrid of endogenous and exogenous orienting. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Using Speed and Accuracy and the Simon Effect to Explore the Output Form of Inhibition of Return.

Inhibition of return (IOR) refers to slower responses to targets presented at previously cued locations. Contrasting target discrimination performance over various eye movement conditions has shown the level of activation of the reflexive oculomotor system determines the nature of the effect. Notably, an inhibitory effect of a cue nearer to the input end of the processing continuum is observed when the reflexive oculomotor system is actively suppressed, and an inhibitory effect nearer the output end of the processing continuum is observed when the reflexive oculomotor system is actively engaged. Furthermore, these two forms of IOR interact differently with the Simon effect. Drift diffusion modeling has suggested that two parameters can theoretically account for the speed-accuracy tradeoff rendered by the output-based form of IOR: increased threshold and decreased trial noise. In Experiment 1, we demonstrate that the threshold parameter best accounts for the output-based form of IOR by measuring it with intermixed discrimination and localization targets. Experiment 2 employed the response-signal methodology and showed that the output-based form has no effect on the accrual of information about the target's identity. These results converge with the response bias account for the output form of IOR.

Sensory and motor mechanisms of oculomotor inhibition of return.

We propose two explicit mechanisms contributing to oculomotor inhibition of return (IOR): sensory and motor. Sensory mechanism: repeated visual stimulation results in a reduction in visual input to the superior colliculus (SC); consequently, saccades to targets that appear at previously stimulated retinotopic locations will have longer latencies than those that appear at unstimulated locations. Motor mechanism: the execution of a saccade results in asymmetric activation in the SC; as a result, saccades that reverse vectors will have longer latencies than those that repeat vectors. In the IOR literature, these two mechanisms correspond to IOR effects observed following covert exogenous orienting and overt endogenous orienting, respectively. We predict that these two independent mechanisms will have additive effects, a prediction that is confirmed in a behavioral experiment. We then discuss how our theory and findings relate to the oculomotor IOR literature.

Exploring the modulation of attentional capture by spatial attentional control settings: converging evidence from event-related potentials.

Automatic attentional capture by a salient distractor can be prevented by spatial attentional control settings (ACSs) (e.g., Yantis and Jonides in J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 16:121-134, 1990). Earlier, converging evidence for a spatial ACS (Eason et al. 1969) was found in event-related potentials (ERPs). In these studies, the ACS was defined by a single target-relevant location. In an extension, Ishigami et al. (Vis Cogn 17:431-456, 2009) demonstrated a successful ACS in performance that was based on multiple (two) target-relevant locations. The purpose of the current study is to seek converging evidence from ERPs for a spatial ACS defined by multiple (two) target-relevant locations, using the methods in Ishigami et al. (Vis Cogn 17:431-456, 2009). Any one of four figure-8s brightened uninformatively (cue) before presentation of a digit target calling for a speeded identification (2 or 5). A spatial ACS was encouraged because in different blocks, the digit targets appeared only on the horizontal or vertical axis. Performance was more impaired following the invalid-attended cues than following invalid-unattended cues, consistent with Ishigami et al. (Vis Cogn 17:431-456, 2009) and verifying a successful spatial ACS. The direction of attention significantly affected the visual evoked potentials (VEPs) elicited by otherwise identical cues: the amplitudes of early VEPs were greater when the location the cue was presented in was target-relevant than when the location was target-irrelevant. These results re-affirm that attentional capture by irrelevant salient stimuli can be modulated by spatial ACSs defined by multiple target locations in performance and provide converging evidence from ERPs for the previously established behavioral findings.

The role of state anxiety in children's memories for pain.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the impact of experimentally manipulated state anxiety and the influence of anxiety-related variables on children's memories for pain. METHODS: A total of 110 children (60 boys) between the ages of 8 and 12 years were randomly assigned to complete a state anxiety induction task or a control task. Following experimental manipulation, children completed a laboratory pain task, pain ratings, and questionnaire measures of anxiety-related variables. 2 weeks later, children provided pain ratings based on their memories of the pain task. RESULTS: The experimental manipulation effectively induced state anxiety; however, pain memories did not differ between groups. Irrespective of group assignment, children with higher state anxiety had more negative pain memories. State anxiety uniquely predicted children's pain memories over and above other well established factors. Anxiety sensitivity and trait anxiety were significant predictors of recalled pain-related fear. CONCLUSIONS: These data highlight the importance of anxiety in the development of children's memories for pain.