FIB-SEM-based analysis of Borrelia intracellular processing by human macrophages.

Borrelia burgdorferi is the causative agent of Lyme disease, a multisystemic disorder affecting primarily skin, joints and nervous system. Successful internalization and intracellular processing of borreliae by immune cells, like macrophages, is decisive for the outcome of a respective infection. Here, we use, for the first time, focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy tomography (FIB-SEM tomography) to visualize the interaction of borreliae with primary human macrophages with high resolution. We report that interaction between macrophages and the elongated and highly motile borreliae can lead to formation of membrane tunnels that extend deeper into the host cytoplasm than the actual phagosome, most probably as a result of partial extrication of captured borreliae. We also show that membrane tubulation at borreliae-containing phagosomes, a process suggested earlier as a mechanism leading to phagosome compaction but hard to visualize in live-cell imaging, is apparently a frequent phenomenon. Finally, we demonstrate that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) forms multiple STIM1-positive contact sites with both membrane tunnels and phagosome tubulations, confirming the important role of the ER during uptake and intracellular processing of borreliae.

Fine-Tuning the Activation Mode of an 1,3-Indandione-Based Ruthenium(II)-Cymene Half-Sandwich Complex by Variation of Its Leaving Group.

Fine-tuning of the properties of a recently reported 1,3-indandione-based organoruthenium complex is attempted to optimize the stability under physiological conditions. Previous work has shown its capacity of inhibiting topoisomerase IIα; however, fast aquation leads to undesired reactions and ligand cleavage in the blood stream before the tumor tissue is reached. Exchange of the chlorido ligand for six different N-donor ligands resulted in new analogs that were stable at pH 7.4 and 8.5. Only a lowered pH level, as encountered in the extracellular space of the tumor tissue, was capable of aquating the complexes. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values in three human cancer cell lines differed only slightly, and their dependence on the utilized leaving group was smaller than what would be expected from their differences in cellular accumulation, but in accordance with the very minor variation revealed in measurements of the complexes' lipophilicity.

The formins FHOD1 and INF2 regulate inter- and intra-structural contractility of podosomes.

Podosomes are actin-rich adhesion structures that depend on Arp2/3-complex-based actin nucleation. We now report the identification of the formins FHOD1 and INF2 as novel components and additional actin-based regulators of podosomes in primary human macrophages. FHOD1 surrounds the podosome core and is also present at podosome-connecting cables, whereas INF2 localizes at the podosome cap structure. Using a variety of microscopy-based methods; including a semiautomated podosome reformation assay, measurement of podosome oscillations, FRAP analysis of single podosomes, and structured illumination microscopy, both formins were found to regulate different aspects of podosome-associated contractility, with FHOD1 mediating actomyosin contractility between podosomes, and INF2 regulating contractile events at individual podosomes. Moreover, INF2 was found to be a crucial regulator of podosome de novo formation and size. Collectively, we identify FHOD1 and INF2 as novel regulators of inter- and intra-structural contractility of podosomes. Podosomes thus present as one of the few currently identified structures which depend on the concerted activity of both Arp2/3 complex and specific formins and might serve as a model system for the analysis of complex actin architectures in cells.

Multifunctional αvß6 Integrin-Specific Peptide-Pt(IV) Conjugates for Cancer Cell Targeting.

Increasing the specificity of cancer therapy, and thereby decreasing damage to normal cells, requires targeting to cancer-cell specific features. The αvß6 integrin is a receptor involved in cell adhesion and is frequently up-regulated in cancer cells compared to normal cells. We have selected a peptide ligand reported to bind specifically to the ß6 integrin and have synthesized a suite of multispecific molecules to explore the potential for targeting of cancer cells. A combination of solid-phase peptide synthesis and chemoselective ligations was used to synthesize multifunctional molecules composed of integrin-targeting peptides, cytotoxic platinum(IV) prodrugs, and fluorescent or affinity probes joined with flexible linkers. The modular synthesis approach facilitates the construction of peptide-drug conjugates with various valencies and properties in a convergent manner. The binding and specificity of the multifunctional peptide conjugates were investigated using a cell line transfected with the ß6 integrin and fluorescence microscopy. This versatile and highly controlled approach to synthesizing labeled peptide-drug conjugates has the potential to target potent cytotoxic drugs specifically to cancer cells, reducing the doses required for effective treatment.

EGFR-targeting peptide-coupled platinum(IV) complexes.

The high mortality rate of lung cancer patients and the frequent occurrence of side effects during cancer therapy demonstrate the need for more selective and targeted drugs. An important and well-established target for lung cancer treatment is the occasionally mutated epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). As platinum(II) drugs are still the most important therapeutics against lung cancer, we synthesized in this study the first platinum(IV) complexes coupled to the EGFR-targeting peptide LARLLT (and the shuffled RTALLL as reference). Notably, HPLC-MS measurements revealed two different peaks with the same molecular mass, which turned out to be a transcyclization reaction in the linker between maleimide and the coupled cysteine moiety. With regard to the EGFR specificity, subsequent biological investigations (3-day viability, 14-day clonogenic assays and platinum uptake) on four different cell lines with different verified EGFR expression levels were performed. Unexpectedly, the results showed neither an enhanced activity nor an EGFR expression-dependent uptake of our new compounds. Consequently, fluorophore-coupled peptides were synthesized to re-evaluate the targeting ability of LARLLT itself. However, also with these molecules, flow cytometry measurements showed no correlation of drug uptake with the EGFR expression levels. Taken together, we successfully synthesized the first platinum(IV) complexes coupled to an EGFR-targeting peptide; however, the biological investigations revealed that LARLLT is not an appropriate peptide for enhancing the specific uptake of small-molecule drugs into EGFR-overexpressing cancer cells.

Post-digestion stabilization of osmium enables quantification by ICP-MS in cell culture and tissue.

An orally active osmium anticancer compound was reliably quantified in the organs of treated mice by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) by adding a stabilizing solution consisting of ascorbic acid, thiourea and EDTA during sample preparation and avoiding oxidizing conditions. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) of 189Os were determined in liver tissue to be 0.02 and 0.075 µg kg-1, respectively. In spiked liver tissue, the internal precision showed a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 4%, a matrix recovery of 92% and a digestion recovery of 99%. A similar quantification protocol was developed for cellular accumulation studies in vitro. The cells were lysed with a non-oxidizing lysis buffer consisting of 150 mmol L-1 NaCl, 1.0% Triton X-100, 0.1% SDS, and 50 mmol L-1 Tris at pH 8.0 before adding the stabilizing solution. The osmium compound was compared with an isosteric ruthenium analogue and they displayed similar cellular accumulation and organ distribution profiles.

Introducing the 4-Phenyl-1,2,3-Triazole Moiety as a Versatile Scaffold for the Development of Cytotoxic Ruthenium(II) and Osmium(II) Arene Cyclometalates.

Herein we report the synthesis, anticancer potency in vitro, biomolecule interaction, and preliminary mode of action studies of a series of cyclometalated 1,2,3-triazole-derived ruthenium(II) (2a-e) and osmium(II) (3a-e) organometallics of the general form [(η6-p-cym)RuCl(κ2-C^N-L)] with varying substituents in postion 1 of the 1,2,3-triazole moiety. These cyclometalates were characterized by standard analytical methods and their structures unambiguously assigned by single crystal X-ray crystallography. The anticancer activity of these novel compounds was tested in the human tumor cell lines A549 (non-small cell lung cancer), SW480 (colon adenocarcinoma), and CH1/PA-1 (ovarian teratocarcinoma), and preliminary structure-activity relationships were derived from the obtained data sets. Various representatives exhibit promising antineoplastic effects with IC50 values down to the low micromolar range. The compounds readily formed stable DMSO adducts after aquation in DMSO-containing solution, but employing DMSO as solubilizer in cytotoxicity assays had no pronounced effect on the cytotoxicity, compared to analogous experiments with DMF for most compounds. We isolated and characterized selected DMSO adducts as triflate salts and found that they show activities in the same range as the parent chlorido metalacycles in MTT assays with the use of DMSO. Osmium(II) cyclometalates exhibited higher antiproliferative activities than their ruthenium(II) counterparts. The IC50 values within each metal series decreased with increasing lipophilicity, which was attributed to higher cellular accumulation. Investigations on their mode of action revealed that the prepared organometallics were unable to inhibit topoisomerase IIα. Still, the most cytotoxic representatives 2b and 3b showed pronounced effects on cell cycle distribution.

An Organoruthenium Anticancer Agent Shows Unexpected Target Selectivity For Plectin.

Organometallic metal(arene) anticancer agents require ligand exchange for their anticancer activity and this is generally believed to confer low selectivity for potential cellular targets. However, using an integrated proteomics-based target-response profiling approach as a potent hypothesis-generating procedure, we found an unexpected target selectivity of a ruthenium(arene) pyridinecarbothioamide (plecstatin) for plectin, a scaffold protein and cytolinker, which was validated in a plectin knock-out model in vitro. Plectin targeting shows potential as a strategy to inhibit tumor invasiveness as shown in cultured tumor spheroids while oral administration of plecstatin-1 to mice reduces tumor growth more efficiently in the invasive B16 melanoma than in the CT26 colon tumor model.

Nectin stabilization at adherens junctions is counteracted by Rab5a-dependent endocytosis.

Cell-cell junctions undergo constant remodeling, which is crucial for the control of vascular integrity. Indeed, transport of junctional components such as cadherins is understood in increasing depth. However, little is known about the respective pathways regulating localization of nectin at cell-cell junctions. Here, we performed an siRNA-based screen of vesicle regulators of the RabGTPase family, leading to the identification of a novel role for Rab5a in the endocytosis nectin-2 at adherens junctions of primary human endothelial cells (HUVEC). Confocal microscopy experiments revealed disordered nectin-2 localization at adherens junctions upon Rab5a depletion. In addition, internalized nectin-2 was shown to prominently localize to Rab5a-positive vesicles in both fixed and living cells. As shown previously, nectin-2 stabilization at junctions is achieved via drebrin-dependent coupling to the subcortical actin cytoskeleton. Consistently, depletion of drebrin in this study leads to enhanced internalization of nectin-2 from junctions. Strikingly, simultaneous silencing of Rab5a and drebrin restored the junctional localization of nectin-2, pointing to Rab5a as counteracting the drebrin-dependent stabilization of nectin-2 at adherens junctions. This mechanism could be further validated by transendothelial resistance measurements. Collectively, our results identify Rab5a as a key player in the endocytosis of nectin-2 and thus in the regulation of adherens junction integrity in primary human endothelial cells.

Modified amino-dextrans as carriers of Gd-chelates for retrograde transport and visualization of peripheral nerves by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Amino-dextrans (AD) conjugated with gadolinium (Gd3+) were developed as neuro-specific contrast agents (CA) for the visualization of the sciatic nerve in rats by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). AD with 3, 10, and 70 kDa molecular weights were assessed as carrier molecules known to be transported with various speed by axonal microtubules. Detailed spectroscopic characterizations, analyses by Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography (FPLC), Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), were carried out. For MRI, the paramagnetic Gd3+ ion was coupled as a T1 signal enhancer. The well-established linear chelator, diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), was used and subsequently replaced by the more stable cyclic chelator 1,4,7,10-Tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA). In addition, a fluorescently labeled AD-DTPA-Gd was prepared to demonstrate an active transport to the spinal cord by histochemistry. After successful synthesis and characterization, molecular migration of the AD-DTPA-Gd in the sciatic nerve of healthy Sprague Dawley rats was monitored by MRI for up to seven days. Enhancement of nerve structures was evaluated by MRI and correlated with ICP-MS analyses. To investigate the distribution of CA along the neuraxis, all animals were sacrificed after the final MRI monitoring. Nerves, spinal ganglions, and corresponding spinal cord sections were harvested, to determine the localization and concentration of the paramagnetic element. This is the first report that demonstrates the active uptake and transport of AD-Gd conjugates within the sciatic nerve. This new concept may serve as a potential diagnostic tool for the direct visualization and monitoring of the continuity of injured nerves.

Investigations on the Anticancer Potential of Benzothiazole-Based Metallacycles.

A series of 2-phenylbenzothiazole derivatives and their corresponding organometallic ruthenium(II) and osmium(II) complexes were synthesized, designed to exploit both, the attributes of the half-sandwich transition metal scaffold and the bioactivity spectrum of the applied 2-phenylbenzothiazoles. All synthesized compounds were characterized via standard analytical methods. The obtained organometallics showed antiproliferative activity in the low µM range and are thus at least an order of magnitude more potent than the free ligands. ESI-MS measurements showed that the examined compounds were stable in aqueous solution over 48 h. Additionally, their binding preferences to small biomolecules, their cellular accumulation and capacity of inducing apoptosis/necrosis were investigated. Based on the fluorescence properties of the selected ligand and the corresponding ruthenium complex, their subcellular distribution was studied by fluorescence microscopy, revealing a high degree of colocalization with acidic organelles of cancer cells.

MR Imaging of Peripheral Nerves Using Targeted Application of Contrast Agents: An Experimental Proof-of-Concept Study.

Introduction: Current imaging modalities for peripheral nerves display the nerve's structure but not its function. Based on a nerve's capacity for axonal transport, it may be visualized by targeted application of a contrast agent and assessing the distribution through radiological imaging, thus revealing a nerve's continuity. This concept has not been explored, however, may potentially guide the treatment of peripheral nerve injuries. In this experimental proof-of-concept study, we tested imaging through MRI after administering gadolinium-based contrast agents which were then retrogradely transported. Methods: We synthesized MRI contrast agents consisting of paramagnetic agents and various axonal transport facilitators (HSA-DTPA-Gd, chitosan-DTPA-Gd or PLA/HSA-DTPA-Gd). First, we measured their relaxivity values in vitro to assess their radiological suitability. Subsequently, the sciatic nerve of 24 rats was cut and labeled with one of the contrast agents to achieve retrograde distribution along the nerve. One week after surgery, the spinal cords and sciatic nerves were harvested to visualize the distribution of the respective contrast agent using 7T MRI. In vivo MRI measurements were performed using 9.4 T MRI on the 1st, 3rd, and the 7th day after surgery. Following radiological imaging, the concentration of gadolinium in the harvested samples was analyzed using inductively coupled mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results: All contrast agents demonstrated high relaxivity values, varying between 12.1 and 116.0 mM-1s-1. HSA-DTPA-Gd and PLA/HSA-DTPA-Gd application resulted in signal enhancement in the vertebral canal and in the sciatic nerve in ex vivo MRI. In vivo measurements revealed significant signal enhancement in the sciatic nerve on the 3rd and 7th day after HSA-DTPA-Gd and chitosan-DTPA-Gd (p < 0.05) application. Chemical evaluation showed high gadolinium concentration in the sciatic nerve for HSA-DTPA-Gd (5.218 ± 0.860 ng/mg) and chitosan-DTPA-Gd (4.291 ± 1.290 ng/mg). Discussion: In this study a novel imaging approach for the evaluation of a peripheral nerve's integrity was implemented. The findings provide radiological and chemical evidence of successful contrast agent uptake along the sciatic nerve and its distribution within the spinal canal in rats. This novel concept may assist in the diagnostic process of peripheral nerve injuries in the future.

SNX3 drives maturation of Borrelia phagosomes by forming a hub for PI(3)P, Rab5a, and galectin-9.

The spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, is internalized by macrophages and processed in phagolysosomes. Phagosomal compaction, a crucial step in phagolysosome maturation, is driven by contact of Rab5a-positive vesicles with the phagosomal coat. We show that the sorting nexin SNX3 is transported with Rab5a vesicles and that its PX domain enables vesicle-phagosome contact by binding to PI(3)P in the phagosomal coat. Moreover, the C-terminal region of SNX3 recruits galectin-9, a lectin implicated in protein and membrane recycling, which we identify as a further regulator of phagosome compaction. SNX3 thus forms a hub for two distinct vesicle populations, constituting a convergence point for the endosomal recycling machinery, to contribute to phagosome maturation and intracellular processing of borreliae. These data also suggest that the helical shape of B. burgdorferi itself, providing sites of high curvature and thus local PI(3)P enrichment at phagosomes, may be one of the driving elements underlying the efficient elimination of spirochetes by immune cells.

The antifibrotic potential of a sustained release formulation of a PDGFß-receptor targeted rho kinase inhibitor.

Rho kinase activity in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is associated with activation, transformation and contraction of these cells, leading to extracellular matrix production and portal hypertension in liver cirrhosis. Inhibition of rho kinase activity can reduce these activities, but may also lead to side effects, for instance systemic hypotension. This can be circumvented by liver-specific delivery of a rho kinase inhibitor to effector cells. Therefore, we targeted the rho kinase inhibitor Y27632 to the key pathogenic cells in liver fibrosis, i.e. myofibroblasts including activated HSCs that highly express the PDGFß-receptor, using the drug carrier pPB-MSA. This carrier consists of mouse serum albumin (MSA) covalently coupled to several PDGFßR-recognizing moieties (pPB). We aimed to create a prolonged release system of such a targeted construct, by encapsulating pPB-MSA-Y27632 in biodegradable polymeric microspheres, thereby reducing short-lasting peak concentrations and the need for frequent administrations. Firstly, we confirmed the vasodilating potency of PDGFß-receptor targeted Y27632 in vitro in a contraction assay using HSCs seeded on a collagen gel. We subsequently demonstrated the in vivo antifibrotic efficacy of pPB-MSA-Y27632-loaded microspheres in the Mdr2-/- mouse model of progressive biliary liver fibrosis. A single subcutaneous microsphere administration followed by organ harvest one week later clearly attenuated liver fibrosis progression and significantly suppressed the expression of fibrosis related genes, such as several collagens, profibrotic cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases. In conclusion, we demonstrate that polymeric microspheres are suitable as drug delivery system for the sustained systemic delivery of targeted protein constructs with antifibrotic potential, such as pPB-MSA-Y27632. This formulation appears suitable for the sustained treatment of liver fibrosis and possibly other chronic diseases.

N- and S-donor leaving groups in triazole-based ruthena(ii)cycles: potent anticancer activity, selective activation, and mode of action studies.

A series of 11 novel ruthenium(ii) arene complexes [Ru(p-cym)(trzC^N)L]NO3 based on the cycloruthenated 1,2,3-triazole scaffold (trzC^N) bearing different N- or S-donor leaving groups (L) were prepared. These complexes exhibited strongly diverging pH-dependent stability profiles, but consistently exerted antiproliferative effects in the low micromolar range in three cancer cell lines (A549, SW480, CH1/PA-1). The interaction with biomolecules was correlated to dissociation of the monodentate leaving group. Under oxidative conditions, the stably bound dimethylsulfide ligand (3a) undergoes oxidation, while metal coordination is maintained, affording the labile DMSO complex (3b). Rationalization of the homogenous antiproliferative activities was attempted by determination of the cellular accumulation and lipophilicity indices (φ0). Investigations on their mechanism of action revealed that these metalacycles are inducers of apoptosis, exert a slight antioxidative effect in cell culture studies, but have no DNA intercalatory activity.

Bioimaging of isosteric osmium and ruthenium anticancer agents by LA-ICP-MS.

Laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) was used to study the spatial distribution of two metallodrugs with anticancer activities in vivo, namely the organoruthenium plecstatin-1 (1) and its isosteric osmium analogue (2), in liver, kidneys, muscles and tumours of treated mice bearing a CT-26 tumour after single-dose i.p. administration. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the spatial distribution of an osmium drug candidate has been investigated using LA-ICP-MS in tissues. Independent measurements of the average ruthenium and osmium concentration via microwave digestion and ICP-MS in organs and tumours were in good agreement with the LA-ICP-MS results. Matrix-matched standards (MMS) ranging from 1 to 30 µg g-1 were prepared to quantify the spatial distributions of the metals and the average metal content of the MMS samples was additionally quantified by ICP-MS after microwave digestion. The recoveries for osmium and ruthenium in the MMS were 105% and 101% on average, respectively, validating the sample preparation procedure of the MMS. Preparation of MMS was carried out under an argon atmosphere to prevent oxidation of osmium-species to the volatile OsO4. The highest metal concentrations were found in the liver, followed by kidney, lung and tumour tissues, while muscles displayed only very low quantities of the respective metal. Both metallodrugs accumulated in the cortex of the kidneys more strongly compared to the medulla. Interestingly, osmium from 2 was largely located at the periphery and tissue edges, whereas ruthenium from 1 was observed to penetrate deeper into the organs and tumours.

Serum-binding properties of isosteric ruthenium and osmium anticancer agents elucidated by SEC-ICP-MS.

ABSTRACT: Size-exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS) was used to study the serum-binding preferences of two metallodrugs with anticancer activities in vivo, namely the organoruthenium compound plecstatin-1 and its isosteric osmium analog. The complexes were administered intraperitoneally into mice bearing a CT-26 tumor. Comparing the total metal content of mouse whole blood and serum underlined that the metallodrugs are mainly located in serum and not in the cellular fraction of the blood samples. In mouse serum, both compounds were not only found to bind extensively to the serum albumin/transferrin fraction but also to immunoglobulins. Free drug was not observed in any of the samples indicating rapid protein binding of the metallodrugs. These findings were validated by spiking human serum with the respective compounds ex vivo. An NCI-60 screen is reported for the osmium analog, which revealed a relative selectivity for cancer cell lines of the ovary and the central nervous system with respect to plecstatin-1. Finally, a COMPARE 170 analysis revealed disruption of DNA synthesis as a possible treatment effect of the osmium-based drug candidate.

Synthesis and in vivo anticancer evaluation of poly(organo)phosphazene-based metallodrug conjugates.

Within this work we aimed to improve the pharmacodynamics and toxicity profile of organoruthenium and -rhodium complexes which had previously been found to be highly potent in vitro but showed unselective activity in vivo. Different organometallic complexes were attached to a degradable poly(organo)phosphazene macromolecule, prepared via controlled polymerization techniques. The conjugation to hydrophilic polymers was designed to increase the aqueous solubility of the typically poorly soluble metal-based half-sandwich compounds with the aim of a controlled, pH-triggered release of the active metallodrug. The synthesized conjugates and their characteristics have been thoroughly studied by means of 31P NMR and UV-Vis spectroscopy, ICP-MS analyses and SEC coupled to ICP-MS. In order to assess their potential as possible anticancer drug candidates, the complexes, as well as their respective macromolecular prodrug formulations were tested against three different cancer cell lines in cell culture. Subsequently, the anticancer activity and organ distribution of the poly(organo)phosphazene drug conjugates were explored in vivo in mice bearing CT-26 colon carcinoma. Our investigations revealed a beneficial influence of this macromolecular prodrug by a significant reduction of adverse effects compared to the free metallodrugs.