Discovery of a Novel Class of State-Dependent NaV1.7 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain.

The discovery of a novel class of state-dependent voltage-gated sodium channel (NaV)1.7 inhibitors is described. By the modification of amide or urethane bond in NaV1.7 blocker III, structure-activity relationship studies that led to the identification of novel NaV1.7 inhibitor 2i (DS01171986) were performed. Compound 2i exhibited state-dependent inhibition of NaV1.7 without NaV1.1, NaV1.5 or human ether-a-go-go related gene (hERG) liabilities at concentrations up to 100 µM. Further biological profiling successfully revealed that 2i possessed potent analgesic properties in a murine model of neuropathic pain (ED50: 3.4 mg/kg) with an excellent central nervous system (CNS) safety margin (> 600 fold).

Discovery of (phenoxy-2-hydroxypropyl)piperidines as a novel class of voltage-gated sodium channel 1.7 inhibitors.

A novel class of NaV1.7 inhibitors has been identified by high-throughput screening followed by structure activity relationship studies. Among this series of compounds, piperidine 9o showed potent human and mouse NaV1.7 inhibitory activities with fair subtype selectivity over NaV1.5. Compound 9o successfully demonstrated analgesic efficacy in mice comparable to that of the currently used drug, mexiletine, but with an expanded central nervous system safety margin.

Angptl3 regulates lipid metabolism in mice.

The KK obese mouse is moderately obese and has abnormally high levels of plasma insulin (hyperinsulinemia), glucose (hyperglycemia) and lipids (hyperlipidemia). In one strain (KK/San), we observed abnormally low plasma lipid levels (hypolipidemia). This mutant phenotype is inherited recessively as a mendelian trait. Here we report the mapping of the hypolipidemia (hypl) locus to the middle of chromosome 4 and positional cloning of the autosomal recessive mutation responsible for the hypolipidemia. The hypl locus encodes a unique angiopoietin-like lipoprotein modulator, which we named Allm1. It is identical to angiopoietin-like protein 3, encoded by Angptl3, and has a highly conserved counterpart in humans. Overexpression of Angptl3 or intravenous injection of the purified protein in KK/San mice elicited an increase in circulating plasma lipid levels. This increase was also observed in C57BL/6J normal mice. Taken together, these data suggest that Angptl3 regulates lipid metabolism in animals.

N-Aryl Indoles as a Novel Class of Potent NaV1.7 Inhibitors.

A novel class of potent NaV1.7 inhibitors has been discovered. The replacement of diaryl ether in compound I was investigated to enhance mouse NaV1.7 inhibitory activity, which resulted in the discovery of N-aryl indoles. The introduction of the 3-methyl group is crucial for high NaV1.7 in vitro potency. The adjustment of lipophilicity led to the discovery of 2e. Compound 2e (DS43260857) demonstrated high in vitro potencies against both human and mouse NaV1.7 with high selectivity over NaV1.1, NaV1.5, and hERG. In vivo evaluations revealed 2e demonstrating potent efficacy in PSL mice with excellent pharmacokinetics.

Discovery of DS-1971a, a Potent, Selective NaV1.7 Inhibitor.

A highly potent, selective NaV1.7 inhibitor, DS-1971a, has been discovered. Exploration of the left-hand phenyl ring of sulfonamide derivatives (I and II) led to the discovery of novel series of cycloalkane derivatives with high NaV1.7 inhibitory potency in vitro. As the right-hand heteroaromatic ring affected the mechanism-based inhibition liability of CYP3A4, replacement of this moiety resulted in the generation of 4-pyrimidyl derivatives. Additionally, GSH adducts formation, which can cause idiosyncratic drug toxicity, was successfully avoided by this modification. An additional optimization led to the discovery of DS-1971a. In preclinical studies, DS-1971a demonstrated highly potent selective in vitro profile with robust efficacy in vivo. DS-1971a exhibited a favorable toxicological profile, which enabled multiple-dose studies of up to 600 mg bid or 400 mg tid (1200 mg/day) administered for 14 days to healthy human males. DS-1971a is expected to exert potent efficacy in patients with peripheral neuropathic pain, with a favorable safety profile.

Mice lacking fat storage-inducing transmembrane protein 2 show improved profiles upon pressure overload-induced heart failure.

Fat storage-inducing transmembrane proteins 1 and 2 (FITM1 and FITM2, respectively) are transmembrane endoplasmic/sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins involved in lipid droplet formation. The physiological functions of FITM1 have only been reported in skeletal muscle, while those of FITM2 were analyzed using genetically engineered mice. However, their roles in the heart have not been characterized. To examine their cardiac functions, we analyzed Fitm1- or Fitm2-knockout mice. Neither constitutive Fitm1 (-/-) aged nor heart failure model mice showed significant differences in heart size or function. Fitm2 (-/-) mice exhibited embryonic death, and aged Fitm2 (+/-) mice had shortened left ventricular end-diastolic dimension, and shortened left ventricular end-systolic dimension. However, body weight and ejection fraction of Fitm2 (+/-) mice were similar to those of wild-type littermates. In the chronic heart failure models, Fitm2 (+/-) mice showed significant suppression of increased left ventricular end-diastolic dimension and reduced ejection fraction. These results suggest the involvement of Fitm2 in chronic heart failure, whereas Fitm1 have a minor effect in this context in mice.

Angiopoietin-like protein3 regulates plasma HDL cholesterol through suppression of endothelial lipase.

OBJECTIVE: A low level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) in plasma has been recognized as an aspect of metabolic syndrome and as a crucial risk factor of cardiovascular events. However, the physiological regulation of plasma HDL levels has not been completely defined. Current studies aim to reveal the contribution of angiopoietin-like protein3 (angptl3), previously known as a plasma suppressor of lipoprotein lipase, to HDL metabolism. METHODS AND RESULTS: Angptl3-deficient mice showed low plasma HDL cholesterol and HDL phospholipid (PL), and which were increased by ANGPTL3 supplementation via adenovirus. In vitro, ANGPTL3 inhibited the phospholipase activity of endothelial lipase (EL), which hydrolyzes HDL-PL and hence decreases plasma HDL levels, through a putative heparin-binding site in the N-terminal domain of ANGPTL3. Post-heparin plasma in Angptl3-knockout mice had higher phospholipase activity than did that in wild-type mice, suggesting that the activity of endogenous EL is elevated in Angptl3-deficient mice. Furthermore, we established an ELISA system for human ANGPTL3 and found that plasma ANGPTL3 levels significantly correlated with plasma HDL cholesterol and HDL-PL levels in human subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Angptl3 acts as an inhibitor of EL and may be involved in the regulation of plasma HDL cholesterol and HDL-PL levels in humans and rodents.

Angptl3-null mice show low plasma lipid concentrations by enhanced lipoprotein lipase activity.

Angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3) is a secreted protein with both angiogenesis and lipid metabolism functions. We generated knockout mice that failed to express the Angptl3 gene, and analyzed the lipid metabolism. Angptl3-null mice, fed a normal diet or a high-fat, high-calorie (HFC) diet, revealed markedly low plasma lipid concentrations, especially plasma triglyceride concentration, although the body weight and liver weight were not different between Angptl3-null mice and wild-type mice. Angptl3-null mice fed an HFC diet also revealed a significantly reduced epididymal adipose tissue weight despite there being no difference in adipocyte size between them and wild-type mice. A triglyceride clearance study indicated that the lower plasma triglyceride concentration in Angptl3-null mice was caused by an accelerated clearance of triglyceride. In fact, lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase activities in the post-heparin plasma of Angptl3-null mice were 1.57 times and 1.42 times higher than those of wild-type mice, respectively. These results suggest that ANGPTL3 may have an effect not only on lipid metabolism but also on adipose formation.

A study to survey susceptible genetic factors responsible for troglitazone-associated hepatotoxicity in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Troglitazone is a 2,4-thiazolidinedione antidiabetic agent with insulin-sensitizing activities. This agent had been used efficiently in a large number of patients but was withdrawn from the market in March 2000 because of its association with idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity. To address the susceptible genetic factors responsible for the hepatotoxicity associated with this agent, we performed a genetic polymorphic analysis by a target gene approach in troglitazone-treated Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. METHODS: One hundred ten patients treated with troglitazone were recruited into this study. The case patients (n = 25) were recruited through medical professionals who had previously reported abnormal increases in the levels of ALT or AST among their patients. The control patients (n = 85) were recruited through physicians prescribing troglitazone. For statistical accuracy, efforts were made to maximize the size of the case group. Genotype analysis was performed in 68 polymorphic sites of 51 candidate genes related to drug metabolism, apoptosis, roduction and elimination of reactive oxygen species, and signal transduction pathways of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma 2 and insulin. RESULTS: The strong correlation with transaminase elevations was observed in the combined glutathione-S-transferase GSTT1-GSTM1 null genotype (odds ratio, 3.692; 95% confidence interval, 1.354-10.066; P =.008). CONCLUSIONS: The double null mutation of GSTT1 and GSTM1 might influence troglitazone-associated abnormal increases of liver enzyme levels.

Leustroducsin B activates nuclear factor-kappaB via the acidic sphingomyelinase pathway in human bone marrow-derived stromal cell line KM-102.

The novel colony-stimulating factor (CSF) inducer leustroducsin B (LSN-B), which was isolated from Streptomyces platensis, has been shown to have potent cytokine-inducing activities in clonal human bone marrow-derived stromal cell line KM-102 and in primary human bone marrow-derived stromal cells. In this study, we investigated the signal transduction pathway of LSN-B using luciferase expression plasmids linked to the 5'-flanking region of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and that of the IL-11 gene. In KM-102 cells, LSN-B induced luciferase activity both in the wild-type and in the activated protein 1 (AP-1) site point-mutated IL-8 promoter. The mutation in the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) site abrogated LSN-B-stimulated induction of the reporter gene. LSN-B-inducing activity was inhibited by (1) N-acetyl-L-cysteine, a well-characterized antioxidant, (2) cationic amphiphilic drugs, inhibitors of acidic sphingomyelinase (A-SMase), and (3) D609, an inhibitor of phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C (PC-PLC). These observations suggest that LSN-B potentiates the A-SMase-mediated signaling pathway to stimulate NF-kappaB. In contrast, LSN-B did not induce IL-11 promoter-driven luciferase activity. The observed increase in IL-11 mRNA stability by LSN-B indicates that the inducible production of IL-11 by LSN-B is regulated at the posttranscriptional level. In addition, inhibition of LSN-B-mediated induction of IL-11 production by cationic amphiphilic drugs and D609 in KM-102 cells demonstrates that increased IL-11 mRNA stability by LSN-B might be mediated via NF-kappaB activation. From these results, we suggest that LSN-B induces cytokine production through at least two separate mechanisms, at the transcriptional level and at the posttranscriptional level via NF-kappaB activation.

Deorphanization of Dresden G protein-coupled receptor for an odorant receptor.

Dresden G protein-coupled receptor (D-GPCR) is one of orphan G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). Here we report the identification of the ligands and the characterization of D-GPCR. We investigated over 5000 compounds to evoke the response mediated by D-GPCR and identified 3-methyl-valeric acid and 4-methyl-valeric acid as agonists using a cAMP assay. It is of interest that they dramatically enhanced the intracellular cAMP accumulation and the CRE-luciferase activity in CHO-K1 cells and HEK293 cells expressing the chimeric protein of D-GPCR with a rhodopsin-tag at its N-terminus. Our results established new characteristics of D-GPCR as an olfactory receptor. First, agonists of D-GPCR belong to odorants. Second, D-GPCR mRNA is expressed in the olfactory bulb. In addition, D-GPCR was reported to have similar sequences and its genome locus nearby other olfactory receptors. These results suggest D-GPCR is an olfactory receptor.

Leptin and insulin down-regulate angiopoietin-like protein 3, a plasma triglyceride-increasing factor.

We reported previously that angiopoietin-like protein3 (ANGPTL3), a liver-specific secretory factor, increased plasma triglyceride (TG) via inhibition of lipoprotein lipase and free fatty acid (FFA) by activating adipose-lipolysis. The current study examined the regulation of Angptl3 by leptin and insulin, both of which are key players in the metabolic syndrome. Angptl3 expression and plasma ANGPTL3 levels were increased in leptin-resistant C57BL/6J(db/db) and -deficient C57BL/6J(ob/ob) mice, relative to the control. Leptin supplements decreased Angptl3 gene expression and plasma ANGPTL3 in C57BL/6J(ob/ob) mice. The changes of Angptl3 were associated with alterations of plasma TG and FFA levels. Leptin treatment directly suppressed Angptl3 gene expression in hepatocytes. Angptl3 gene expression and plasma protein levels were also increased in insulin-deficient streptozotocin-treated mice. Insulin treatment of hepatocytes decreased Angptl3 gene expression and protein secretion. Our results suggest that elevated ANGPTL3 by leptin- or insulin-resistance is attributed to increased plasma TG and FFA concentrations in obesity.

A decreased expression of angiopoietin-like 3 is protective against atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient mice.

KK/Snk mice (previously KK/San) possessing a recessive mutation (hypl) of the angiopoietin-like 3 (Angptl3) gene homozygously exhibit a marked reduction of VLDL due to the decreased Angptl3 expression. Recently, we proposed that Angptl3 is a new class of lipid metabolism modulator regulating VLDL triglyceride (TG) levels through the inhibition of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity. In this study, to elucidate the role of Angptl3 in atherogenesis, we investigated the effects of hypl mutation against hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout (apoEKO) mice. ApoEKO mice with hypl mutation (apoEKO-hypl) exhibited a significant reduction of VLDL TG, VLDL cholesterol, and plasma apoB levels compared with apoEKO mice. Hepatic VLDL TG secretion was comparable between both apoE-deficient mice. Turnover studies revealed that the clearance of both [3H]TG-labeled and 125I-labeled VLDL was significantly enhanced in apoEKO-hypl mice. Postprandial plasma TG levels also decreased in apoEKO-hypl mice. Both LPL and hepatic lipase activities in the postheparin plasma increased significantly in apoEKO-hypl mice, explaining the enhanced lipid metabolism. Furthermore, apoEKO-hypl mice developed 3-fold smaller atherogenic lesions in the aortic sinus compared with apoEKO mice. Taken together, the reduction of Angptl3 expression is protective against hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis, even in the absence of apoE, owing to the enhanced catabolism and clearance of TG-rich lipoproteins.

Angiopoietin-like protein 3, a hepatic secretory factor, activates lipolysis in adipocytes.

Our previous work identified a genetic mutation in the gene encoding angiopoietin-like protein 3 (Angptl3) in KK/Snk mice (previously KK/San), a mutant strain of KK obese mice. KK/Snk had significantly lower plasma triglyceride and free fatty acid (FFA) than KK mice. Human ANGPTL3 treatment increased both plasma triglyceride and FFA. ANGPTL3 inhibited the activity of lipoprotein lipase, which accounted for the increase of plasma triglyceride. The mechanism how ANGPTL3 affects plasma FFA has not been known. The current study reveals that ANGPTL3 targets on adipose cells and induces lipolysis. Both plasma FFA and glycerol decreased in KK/Snk and increased by the treatment of human ANGPTL3. Specific bindings of ANGPTL3 to adipose cells were shown using fluorescence-labeled protein visually and 125I-labeled protein by the binding analysis. Furthermore, ANGPTL3 activated the lipolysis to stimulate the release of FFA and glycerol from adipocytes. We conclude that ANGPTL3 is a liver-derived lipolytic factor targeting on adipocyte.

Protein region important for regulation of lipid metabolism in angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3): ANGPTL3 is cleaved and activated in vivo.

Angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3) is a secreted protein that is mainly expressed in the liver and regulates lipid metabolism by inhibiting the lipolysis of triglyceriderich lipoproteins. Using deletion mutants of human ANGPTL3, we demonstrated that the N-terminal coiled-coil domain-containing fragment-(17-207) and not the C-terminal fibrinogen-like domain-containing fragment-(207-460) increased the plasma triglyceride levels in mice. We also found that the N-terminal region 17-165 was required to increase plasma triglyceride levels in mice and that a substitution of basic amino acid residues in the region 61-66 of the fragment showed no increase in the plasma triglyceride levels and no inhibition of lipolysis by lipoprotein lipase. In addition, when we analyzed ANGPTL3 in human plasma, we detected cleaved fragments of ANGPTL3. By analyzing recombinant ANGPTL3 in mouse plasma, we found that it was cleaved at two sites, Arg221 downward arrow Ala222 and Arg224 downward arrow Thr225, which are located in the linker region between the coiled-coil domain and the fibrinogen-like domain. Furthermore, a cleavage-resistant mutant of ANGPTL3 was determined to be less active than wild-type ANGPTL3 in increasing mouse plasma triglyceride levels but not in inhibiting lipoprotein lipase activity. These findings suggest that the cleavage of ANGPTL3 is important for the activation of ANGPTL3 in vivo.

A superfamily of voltage-gated sodium channels in bacteria.

NaChBac, a six-alpha-helical transmembrane-spanning protein cloned from Bacillus halodurans, is the first functionally characterized bacterial voltage-gated Na(+)-selective channel. As a highly expressing ion channel protein, NaChBac is an ideal candidate for high resolution structural determination and structure-function studies. The biological role of NaChBac, however, is still unknown. In this report, another 11 structurally related bacterial proteins are described. Two of these functionally expressed as voltage-dependent Na(+) channels (Na(V)PZ from Paracoccus zeaxanthinifaciens and Na(V)SP from Silicibacter pomeroyi). Na(V)PZ and Na(V)SP share approximately 40% amino acid sequence identity with NaChBac. When expressed in mammalian cell lines, both Na(V)PZ and Na(V)SP were Na(+)-selective and voltage-dependent. However, their kinetics and voltage dependence differ significantly. These single six-alpha-helical transmembrane-spanning subunits constitute a widely distributed superfamily (Na(V)Bac) of channels in bacteria, implying a fundamental prokaryotic function. The degree of sequence homology (22-54%) is optimal for future comparisons of Na(V)Bac structure and function of similarity and dissimilarity among Na(V)Bac proteins. Thus, the Na(V)Bac superfamily is fertile ground for crystallographic, electrophysiological, and microbiological studies.

ANGPTL3 decreases very low density lipoprotein triglyceride clearance by inhibition of lipoprotein lipase.

KK/San is a mutant mouse strain established in our laboratory from KK obese mice. KK/San mice show low plasma lipid levels compared with wild-type KK mice despite showing signs of hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. Recently, we identified a mutation in the gene encoding angiopoietin-like protein 3 (Angptl3) in KK/San mice, and injection of adenoviruses encoding Angptl3 or recombinant ANGPTL3 protein to mutant KK/San mice raised plasma lipid levels. To elucidate the regulatory mechanism of ANGPTL3 on lipid metabolism, we focused on the metabolic pathways of triglyceride in the present study. Overexpression of Angptl3 in KK/San mice resulted in a marked increase of triglyceride-enriched very low density lipoprotein (VLDL). In vivo studies using Triton WR1339 revealed that there is no significant difference between mutant and wild-type KK mice in the hepatic VLDL triglyceride secretion rate. However, turnover studies using radiolabeled VLDL revealed that the clearance of (3)H-triglyceride-labeled VLDL was significantly enhanced in KK/San mice, whereas the clearance of (125)I-labeled VLDL was only slightly enhanced. In vitro analysis of recombinant protein revealed that ANGPTL3 directly inhibits LPL activity. These data strongly support the hypothesis that ANGPTL3 is a new class of lipid metabolism modulator, which regulates VLDL triglyceride levels through the inhibition of LPL activity.

Angiopoietin-like protein 3 mediates hypertriglyceridemia induced by the liver X receptor.

The KK/San obese and diabetic mouse, a mutant strain from KK obese mice, exhibits significantly low plasma triglyceride levels. In KK/San mice, genetic analysis identified a mutation in the gene encoding angiopoietinlike protein 3 (Angptl3), a liver-specific secretory protein, which had suppressive effect on lipoprotein lipase activity. In the current study, LXR ligands augmented Angptl3 mRNA expression and protein production in hepatoma cells. LXR ligands and LXR.retinoid X receptor (RXR) complex increased the promoter activity of Angptl3 gene. Serial deletion and point mutation of Angptl3 promoter identified an LXR response element (LXRE). Gel mobility shift assay showed the direct binding of LXR.RXR complex to the LXRE of the Angptl3 promoter. Furthermore, treatment of mice with synthetic LXR ligand caused triglyceride accumulation in the liver and plasma, which was accompanied by induction of hepatic mRNAs of several LXR target genes, including sterol regulatory element binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and Angptl3. In Angptl3-deficient C57BL/6J mice, LXR ligand did not cause hypertriglyceridemia but accumulation of triglyceride in the liver. Our results demonstrate that Angptl3 is a direct target of LXR and that induction of hepatic Angptl3 accounts for hypertriglyceridemia associated with the treatment of LXR ligand.