Feasibility, implementation, and outcomes of in situ simulation-based curriculum to manage common emergencies in the pediatric post-anesthesia care unit.

PURPOSE: Studies have shown that most critical events that occur in the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU), including cardiac arrests, are preventable and respiratory in origin. Admission to the PACU necessitates transfer of care from anesthesiology staff to PACU nurses. The aim of the study is to assess a) feasibility in implementing an in-situ curriculum for PACU nurses to manage common pediatric emergencies, b) the effectiveness of the curriculum in improving self-confidence of the PACU nurses in performing essential skills c) nurses'' perception of such an offering. DESIGN AND METHODS: This was a single center curricular evaluation study. Anonymous surveys were used to assess curriculum effectiveness by comparing self-reported confidence in the execution of key technical skills and application of knowledge in a real clinical environment at three time points: baseline, immediately post-simulation, and 3 months later. RESULTS: Of 50 PACU nurses, 80%, 98% and 58% responded to the targeted needs assessment, post-simulation and follow up (at 3 months) survey respectively. Self-reported confidence levels for most of the essential skills were significantly increased immediately after simulation and at 3 months. Most of the participants responded that the simulation training helped them improve care of hypoxic (83%) and hypotensive (62%) patients in the PACU. CONCLUSION: Implementation of in situ curriculum for PACU nurses was feasible. The self-reported confidence in performing essential skills increased significantly and the nurses could apply these skills in real clinical environment. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Interprofessional simulation should be implemented in all high risk units to optimize safety of children.

Review of the enhanced recovery pathway for children: perioperative anesthetic considerations.

PURPOSE: Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) pathways have been used for two decades to improve perioperative recovery in adults. Nevertheless, little is known about their effectiveness in children. The purpose of this review was to consider pediatric ERAS pathways, review the literature concerned with their potential benefit, and compare them with adult ERAS pathways. SOURCE: A PubMed literature search was performed for articles that included the terms enhanced recovery and/or fast track in the pediatric perioperative period. Pediatric patients included those from the neonatal period through teenagers and/or youths. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The literature search revealed a paucity of articles about pediatric ERAS. This lack of academic investigation is likely due in part to the delayed acceptance of ERAS in the pediatric surgical arena. Several pediatric studies examined individual components of adult-based ERAS pathways, but the overall study of a comprehensive multidisciplinary ERAS protocol in pediatric patients is lacking. CONCLUSION: Although adult ERAS pathways have been successful at reducing patient morbidity, the translation, creation, and utility of instituting pediatric ERAS pathways have yet to be realized.

Medical Simulation as a Vital Adjunct to Identifying Clinical Life-Threatening Gaps in Austere Environments.

BACKGROUND: Maternal mortality and morbidity are major causes of death in low-resource countries, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa. Healthcare workforce scarcities present in these locations result in poor perioperative care access and quality. These scarcities also limit the capacity for progressive development and enhancement of workforce training, and skills through continuing medical education. Newly available low-cost, in-situ simulation systems make it possible for a small cadre of trainers to use simulation to identify areas needing improvement and to rehearse best practice approaches, relevant to the context of target environments. METHODS: Nurse anesthetists were recruited throughout Sierra Leone to participate in simulation-based obstetric anesthesia scenarios at the country's national referral maternity hospital. All subjects participated in a detailed computer assisted training program to familiarize themselves with the Universal Anesthesia Machine (UAM). An expert panel rated the morbidity/mortality risk of pre-identified critical incidents within the scenario via the Delphi process. Participant responses to critical incidents were observed during these scenarios. Participants had an obstetric anesthesia pretest and post-test as well as debrief sessions focused on reviewing the significance of critical incident responses observed during the scenario. RESULTS: 21 nurse anesthetists, (20% of anesthesia providers nationally) participated. Median age was 41 years and median experience practicing anesthesia was 3.5 years. Most participants (57.1%) were female, two-thirds (66.7%) performed obstetrics anesthesia daily but 57.1% had no experience using the UAM. During the simulation, participants were observed and assessed on critical incident responses for case preparation with a median score of 7 out of 13 points, anesthesia management with a median score of 10 out of 20 points and rapid sequence intubation with a median score of 3 out of 10 points. CONCLUSION: This study identified substantial risks to patient care and provides evidence to support the feasibility and value of in-situ simulation-based performance assessment for identifying critical gaps in safe anesthesia care in the low-resource settings. Further investigations may validate the impact and sustainability of simulation based training on skills transfer and retention among anesthesia providers low resource environments.

Videolaryngoscopy versus Fiber-optic Intubation through a Supraglottic Airway in Children with a Difficult Airway: An Analysis from the Multicenter Pediatric Difficult Intubation Registry.

BACKGROUND: The success rates and related complications of various techniques for intubation in children with difficult airways remain unknown. The primary aim of this study is to compare the success rates of fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway to videolaryngoscopy in children with difficult airways. Our secondary aim is to compare the complication rates of these techniques. METHODS: Observational data were collected from 14 sites after management of difficult pediatric airways. Patient age, intubation technique, success per attempt, use of continuous ventilation, and complications were recorded for each case. First-attempt success and complications were compared in subjects managed with fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway and videolaryngoscopy. RESULTS: Fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway and videolaryngoscopy had similar first-attempt success rates (67 of 114, 59% vs. 404 of 786, 51%; odds ratio 1.35; 95% CI, 0.91 to 2.00; P = 0.16). In subjects less than 1 yr old, fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway was more successful on the first attempt than videolaryngoscopy (19 of 35, 54% vs. 79 of 220, 36%; odds ratio, 2.12; 95% CI, 1.04 to 4.31; P = 0.042). Complication rates were similar in the two groups (20 vs. 13%; P = 0.096). The incidence of hypoxemia was lower when continuous ventilation through the supraglottic airway was used throughout the fiber-optic intubation attempt. CONCLUSIONS: In this nonrandomized study, first-attempt success rates were similar for fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway and videolaryngoscopy. Fiber-optic intubation via supraglottic airway is associated with higher first-attempt success than videolaryngoscopy in infants with difficult airways. Continuous ventilation through the supraglottic airway during fiber-optic intubation attempts may lower the incidence of hypoxemia.

Anesthesiologist- and System-Related Risk Factors for Risk-Adjusted Pediatric Anesthesia-Related Cardiac Arrest.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric anesthesia-related cardiac arrest (ARCA) is an uncommon but potentially preventable adverse event. Infants and children with more severe underlying disease are at highest risk. We aimed to identify system- and anesthesiologist-related risk factors for ARCA. METHODS: We analyzed a prospectively collected patient cohort data set of anesthetics administered from 2000 to 2011 to children at a large tertiary pediatric hospital. Pre-procedure systemic disease level was characterized by ASA physical status (ASA-PS). Two reviewers independently reviewed cardiac arrests and categorized their anesthesia relatedness. Factors associated with ARCA in the univariate analyses were identified for reevaluation after adjustment for patient age and ASA-PS. RESULTS: Cardiac arrest occurred in 142 of 276,209 anesthetics (incidence 5.1/10,000 anesthetics); 72 (2.6/10,000 anesthetics) were classified as anesthesia-related. In the univariate analyses, risk of ARCA was much higher in cardiac patients and for anesthesiologists with lower annual caseload and/or fewer annual days delivering anesthetics (all P < 0.001). Anesthesiologists with the highest academic rank and years of experience also had higher odds of ARCA (P = 0.02). After risk adjustment for ASA-PS ≥ III and age ≤ 6 months, however, the association with lower annual days delivering anesthetics remained (P = 0.03), but the other factors were no longer significant. CONCLUSIONS: Case-mix explained most associations between higher risk of pediatric ARCA and anesthesiologist-related variables at our institution, but the association with fewer annual days delivering anesthetics remained. Our findings highlight the need for rigorous adjustment for patient risk factors in anesthesia patient safety studies.

Anesthesia Practice and Perioperative Outcomes at Two Tertiary Care Hospitals in Freetown, Sierra Leone.

BACKGROUND: Anesthesia in West Africa is associated with high mortality rates. Critical shortages of adequately trained personnel, unreliable electrical supply, and lack of basic monitoring equipment are a few of the unique challenges to surgical care in this region. This study aims to describe the anesthesia practice at 2 tertiary care hospitals in Sierra Leone. METHODS: We conducted an observational study of anesthesia care at Connaught Hospital and Princess Christian Maternity Hospital in Freetown, Sierra Leone. Twenty-five percent of the anesthesia workforce in Sierra Leone, resident at both hospitals, was observed from June 2012 to February 2013. Perioperative assessments, anesthetic techniques, and intraoperative clinical and environmental irregularities were noted and analyzed. The postoperative status of observed cases was ascertained for morbidity and mortality. RESULTS: Between the 2 hospitals, 754 anesthesia cases and 373 general anesthetics were observed. Ketamine was the predominant IV anesthetic used. Both hospitals experienced infrastructural and environmental constraints to the delivery of anesthesia care during the observation period. Vital sign monitoring was irregular and dependent on age and availability of monitors. Perioperative mortality during the course of the study was 11.9 deaths/1000 anesthetics. CONCLUSIONS: We identified gaps in the application of internationally recommended anesthesia practices at both hospitals, likely caused by lack of available resources. Mortality rates were similar to those in other resource-limited countries.

Engaging staff to improve quality and safety in an austere medical environment: a case-control study in two Sierra Leonean hospitals.

QUALITY PROBLEM OR ISSUE: Inadequate observance of basic processes in patient care such as patient monitoring and documentation practices are potential impediments to the timely diagnoses and management of patients. These gaps exist in low resource settings such as Sierra Leone and can be attributed to a myriad of factors such as workforce and technology deficiencies. INITIAL ASSESSMENT: In the study site, only 12.4% of four critical vital signs were documented in the pre-intervention period. CHOICE OF SOLUTION: Implement a failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) to improve documentation of four patient vital signs: temperature, blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory rate. IMPLEMENTATION: FMEA was implemented among a subpopulation of health workers who are involved in monitoring and documenting patient vital signs. Pre- and post-FMEA monitoring and documentation practice were compared with a control site. EVALUATION: Participants identified a four-step process to monitoring and documenting vital signs, three categories of failure modes and four potential solutions. Based on 2100 patient days of documentation compliance data from 147 patients between July and November 2012, staff members at the study site were 1.79 times more likely to document all four patient vital signs in the post-implementation period (95% CI [1.35, 2.38]). LESSONS LEARNED: FMEA is a feasible and effective strategy for improving quality and safety in an austere medical environment. Documentation compliance improved at the intervention facility. To evaluate the scalability and sustainability of this approach, programs targeting the development of these types of process improvement skills in local staff should be evaluated.

Failure mode and effects analysis applied to the maintenance and repair of anesthetic equipment in an austere medical environment.

OBJECTIVE: Medical technology designed for Western settings frequently does not function adequately or as intended when placed in an austere clinical environment because of issues such as the instability of the electrical grid, environmental conditions, access to replacement parts, level of provider training and general absence of biomedical engineering support. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of applying failure mode and effects analysis as part of an implementation strategy for medical devices in austere medical settings. DESIGN: Observational case-study. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS/INTERVENTION: We conducted failure mode and effects analysis sessions with 16 biomedical engineering technicians at two tertiary-care hospitals in Freetown, Sierra Leone. The sessions focused on maintenance and repair processes for the Universal Anaesthesia Machine. Participating biomedical engineers detailed local maintenance and repair processes and failure modes, including resource availability, communication challenges, use errors and physical access to the machine. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Qualitative descriptive themes in barriers perceived and solutions generated by biomedical engineers. RESULTS: Solutions generated involved redesigned work processes to increase the efficiency of identifying machine malfunctions, clinician engagement strategies, a formal plan for acquiring spare parts and plans for improving access to the machine. Follow-up interviews indicated solutions generated were implemented and perceived to be effective. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the feasibility of using the failure mode and effects analysis approach to improve implementation of technology in austere medical environments.

Bridging the mismatch: observing the introduction of new anesthesia technology for a low-resource environment.

Objective: The objective of this study was to examine the impact of the introduction of the Universal Anaesthesia Machine (UAM), a device designed for use in clinical environments with limited clinical perioperative resources, on the choice of general anesthesia technique and safe anesthesia practice in a tertiary-care hospital in Sierra Leone. Methods: We introduced an anesthesia machine (UAM) into Connaught Hospital, Freetown, Sierra Leone. We conducted a prospective observational study of anesthesia practice and an examination of perioperative clinical parameters among surgical patients at the hospital to determine the usability of the device, its impact on anesthesia capacity, and changes in general anesthesia technique. Findings: We observed a shift from the use of ketamine total intravenous anesthesia to inhalational anesthesia. This shift was most demonstrable in anesthesia care for appendectomies and surgical wound management. In 10 of 17 power outages that occurred during inhalational general anesthesia, anesthesia delivery was uninterrupted because inhalational anesthesia was being delivered with the UAM. Conclusion: Anesthesia technologies tailored to overcome austere environmental conditions can support the delivery of safe anesthesia care while maintaining fidelity to recommended international anesthesia practice standards.

Parent Experience of Communication about Children's Surgery: A Qualitative Analysis.

Parent experience is a core component of the quality of pediatric care and an increasingly common focus of quality improvement initiatives. However, the parent experience of communication in the pediatric surgical setting remains unexplored. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 20 parents of children undergoing surgery. Interviews were analyzed using directed qualitative content analysis. RESULTS: Content analysis revealed 3 overarching themes. The theme of "provider-parent communication" included interpersonal behaviors and communication-originating skills of the surgeon. Parents valued surgeons incorporating multimodal information-sharing techniques, recognizing children's psychological needs, providing reassurance, engaging in teamwork, and including parents. The theme of "parental emotional experiences" included domains of parent worry, intimidation, offense, self-doubt, mistrust, and strength surrounding their child's surgery. Parents felt simultaneously responsible for their child's welfare and for understanding medical information. The theme of "process improvement" included preparation for surgery, efficiency, managing delays, anesthesia induction, emergence from anesthesia, privacy, and preparation for recovery. CONCLUSIONS: Themes identified through these parental narratives and proposed solutions inform quality improvement efforts related to surgeon communication strategies and facilitate family-centered surgical care for children. Parents often provided solutions after they described concerns, which attests to the utility of parent perspectives.

Education News.

First responders need hands-on experience with pediatric airway management, but the impact of a learner program in the operating room (OR) is unknown. We developed, implemented, and evaluated a pediatric airway "rotator" (PAR) program for 8 multidisciplinary groups to obtain this experience. This quality improvement pilot was conducted in the pediatric ORs from November 2017 to January 2018. We surveyed learner group leaders and anesthesia teachers about their PAR airway management expectations and developed a universal set of prerequisites, objectives, and simulation experiences. Airway management skills were assessed in a group of PARs at baseline. During implementation, another group of PARs completed prerequisites and reviewed objectives before coming to the OR for simu-lation using an infant mannequin. Then they entered the OR for "live" airway management. A comparison of preintervention and postintervention skills suggested an improvement in performance for most airway management domains except laryngeal mask airway insertion, which stayed about the same, and intubation, which decreased in the postintervention group. In the postassessment surveys, the PARs indicated that the interventions were helpful to their learning, and the anesthesia teachers' responses indicated that the primary goals to improve PARs' preparedness, airway management, and communication skills were achieved.

Efficacy and Cost Comparison of Case-based Learning to Simulation-based Learning for Teaching Malignant Hyperthermia Concepts to Anesthesiology Residents.

BACKGROUND: Case-based learning (CBL) is a distinct classroom-based teaching format. We compare learning and retention using a CBL teaching strategy vs simulation-based learning (SBL) on the topic of malignant hyperthermia. METHODS: In this study, 54 anesthesia residents were assigned to either a CBL or SBL experience. All residents had prior simulation experience, and both groups received a pretest and a lecture on rare diseases with emphasis on malignant hyperthermia followed by a CBL or SBL session. Test questions were validated for face and construct validity. Postsession testing occurred on the same day and at 4 months. RESULTS: Twenty-seven residents completed all components of the study. The CBL group had 10 residents, and the SBL group had 17 residents. Most residents (80%) had previous exposure to malignant hyperthermia education. ANOVA for repeated measures demonstrated superior learning and long-term retention in the CBL group. In addition, our cost analysis reveals the cost of SBL to be approximately 17 times more expensive per learner than CBL. CONCLUSIONS: We found that CBL promoted learning and long-term retention for the topic of malignant hyperthermia and it is a more affordable teaching method. Affordability and effectiveness evidence may guide some programs toward CBL, particularly if access to simulation is limited. The number of participants and full validation of the examination questions are limitations of the study. Further studies are required to validate the findings of this study.

Development of a Multidisciplinary Pediatric Airway Program: An Institutional Experience.

Rapid response teams have become necessary components of patient care within the hospital community, including for airway management. Pediatric patients with an increased risk of having a difficult airway emergency can often be predicted on the basis of clinical scenarios and medical history. This predictability has led to the creation of airway consultation services designed to develop airway management plans for patients experiencing respiratory distress and who are at risk for having a difficult airway requiring advanced airway management. In addition, evolving technology has facilitated airway management outside of the operating suite. Training and continuing education on the use of these tools for airway management is imperative for clinicians responding to airway emergencies. We describe the comprehensive multidisciplinary, multicomponent Pediatric Difficult Airway Program we created that addresses each component identified above: the Pediatric Difficult Airway Response Team (PDART), the Pediatric Difficult Airway Consult Service, and the pediatric educational airway program. Approximately 41% of our PDART emergency calls occurred in the evening hours, requiring a specialized team ready to respond throughout the day and night. A multitude of devices were used during the calls, obviating the need for formal education and hands-on experience with these devices. Lastly, we observed that the majority of PDART calls occurred in patients who either were previously designated as having a difficult airway and/or had anatomic variations that suggest challenges during airway management. By instituting the Pediatric Difficult Airway Consult Service, we have decreased emergent Difficult Airway Response Team calls with the ultimate goal of first-attempt intubation success.

Human Factors Evaluation of the Universal Anaesthesia Machine: Assessing Equipment with High-Fidelity Simulation Prior to Deployment in a Resource-Constrained Environment.

BACKGROUND: Anesthesia providers in low- and middle-income countries face many challenges, including poor availability of functioning equipment designed to meet their environmental, organizational, and resource constraints. These are serious global health disparities which threaten access to care and patient safety for those who receive surgical care. In this study, we conducted a simulation-based human factors analysis of the Universal Anaesthesia Machine (UAM®), a device designed to support anesthesia providers in austere medical settings. Our team anticipated the introduction of the UAM® to the two major referral hospitals in Freetown, Sierra Leone. A prior observational study had identified these two hospitals as having environmental conditions consistent with an austere environment: an unstable electrical grid, as well as limited access to compressed oxygen, biomedical support, and consumables. Although the Baltimore simulation environment cannot reproduce all of the challenges present in a resource-constrained environment such as Sierra Leone, the major impediments to standard anesthesia machine functionality and human factors-associated use can be reproduced with the use of high-fidelity simulation. Using anesthesia care providers who have limited UAM® familiarity, this study allowed for the examination of machine-user issues in a controlled environment in preparation for further field studies concerning equipment introduction, training and device deployment in Sierra Leone. The goals of this study were: 1. to assess the usability of the UAM® (machine-user interface, simulated patient use, symbology, etc.) across different provider user groups during simulation of use in scenarios depicting routine use in healthy patients, use in clinically challenging patients and use in environmentally-challenging scenarios in a controlled setting devoid of patient risk, and 2. To gather feedback on available UAM manuals and cognitive aides and UAM usability issues in order to guide development of curricula for training providers on use of the UAM® in the intended austere clinical environments. METHODS: Residents, fellows, attending physician anesthesiologists, student nurse anesthetists, and nurse anesthetists participated in a variety of simulations involving the Universal Anaesthesia Machine® at the Johns Hopkins Medicine Simulation Center between September 2012 and July 2013. Data collected included participant demographics, performance during simulation scenarios captured with critical action checklists, workload ratings captured with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA TLX), and participant reactions to UAM® use captured through a post-session survey and semi-structured usability debriefing. The scenarios were: 1. normal use (machine check, induction, and maintenance of an uneventful case), 2. use in a challenging clinical condition (acute onset of bronchospasm) and 3.use in an adverse environmental event (power failure). Critical action checklists and workload ratings were analyzed by Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to control for participant demographics. Usability debriefings were analyzed qualitatively. RESULTS: Thirty-five anesthesia providers participated in the study. Overall participant ratings, observations of performance in simulation scenarios, and usability debriefings indicated a high level of usability for the UAM®. Mean participant ratings were high for ease of use (5.4 ± 0.96) and clarity of instruction (6.2 ± 0.87) on a 7-point scale in which higher ratings indicate more positive perceptions. After adjusting for clinical experience, workload ratings were significantly higher in the bronchospasm scenario than in the normal/routine use (P = 0.046; 95% CI, 0.33-34.7) or power failure scenarios (P = 0.012; 95% CI, 5.24-37.9). Thirty-two specific usability issues were identified and grouped into five themes: device design and labeling, machine use during simulation scenarios, user-anticipated errors or hazards, curriculum issues, and overall impressions of the UAM®. CONCLUSIONS: The UAM® design addresses many of the key challenges facing anesthesia providers in resource-constrained settings. The simulation-based human factors evaluation described here successfully identified opportunities for continued refinement of the initial device design as well as issues to be addressed in future curricula and cognitive aides.

Incidence, Distribution, and Cost of Lawn-Mower Injuries in the United States, 2006-2013.

OBJECTIVES: Characterization of the epidemiology and cost of lawn-mower injuries is potentially useful to inform injury prevention and health policy efforts. We examined the incidence, distribution, types and severity, and emergency department (ED) and hospitalization charges of lawn-mower injuries among all age groups across the United States. METHODS: This retrospective, cross-sectional study used nationally representative, population-based (all-payer) data from the US Nationwide Emergency Department Sample for lawn-mower-related ED visits and hospitalizations from January 1, 2006, through December 31, 2013. Lawn-mower injuries were identified by using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification code E920 (accidents caused by a powered lawn mower). We analyzed data on demographic characteristics, age, geographic distribution, type of injury, injury severity, and hospital charges. RESULTS: We calculated a weighted estimate of 51 151 lawn-mower injuries during the 8-year study period. The most common types of injuries were lacerations (n = 23 907, 46.7%), fractures (n = 11 433, 22.4%), and amputations (n = 11 013, 21.5%). The most common injury locations were wrist or hand (n = 33 477, 65.4%) and foot or toe (n = 10 122, 19.8%). Mean ED charges were $2482 per patient, and mean inpatient charges were $36 987 per patient. The most common procedures performed were wound irrigation or debridement (n = 1436, 29.9%) and amputation (n = 1230, 25.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Lawn-mower injuries occurred at a constant rate during the study period. Changes to nationwide industry safety standards are needed to reduce the frequency and severity of these preventable injuries.