A single-amino acid substitution in the adaptor LAT accelerates TCR proofreading kinetics and alters T-cell selection, maintenance and function.

Mature T cells must discriminate between brief interactions with self-peptides and prolonged binding to agonists. The kinetic proofreading model posits that certain T-cell antigen receptor signaling nodes serve as molecular timers to facilitate such discrimination. However, the physiological significance of this regulatory mechanism and the pathological consequences of disrupting it are unknown. Here we report that accelerating the normally slow phosphorylation of the linker for activation of T cells (LAT) residue Y136 by introducing an adjacent Gly135Asp alteration (LATG135D) disrupts ligand discrimination in vivo. The enhanced self-reactivity of LATG135D T cells triggers excessive thymic negative selection and promotes T-cell anergy. During Listeria infection, LATG135D T cells expand more than wild-type counterparts in response to very weak stimuli but display an imbalance between effector and memory responses. Moreover, despite their enhanced engagement of central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms, mice bearing LATG135D show features associated with autoimmunity and immunopathology. Our data reveal the importance of kinetic proofreading in balancing tolerance and immunity.

Mechanobiology of T Cell Activation: To Catch a Bond.

T cell activation is a critical event in the adaptive immune response, indispensable for cell-mediated and humoral immunity as well as for immune regulation. Recent years have witnessed an emerging trend emphasizing the essential role that physical force and mechanical properties play at the T cell interface. In this review, we integrate current knowledge of T cell antigen recognition and the different models of T cell activation from the perspective of mechanobiology, focusing on the interaction between the T cell receptor (TCR) and the peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) antigen. We address the shortcomings of TCR affinity alone in explaining T cell functional outcomes and the rising status of force-regulated TCR bond lifetimes, most notably the TCR catch bond. Ultimately, T cell activation and the ensuing physiological responses result from mechanical interaction between TCRs and the pMHC.

Isolation of a Structural Mechanism for Uncoupling T Cell Receptor Signaling from Peptide-MHC Binding.

TCR-signaling strength generally correlates with peptide-MHC binding affinity; however, exceptions exist. We find high-affinity, yet non-stimulatory, interactions occur with high frequency in the human T cell repertoire. Here, we studied human TCRs that are refractory to activation by pMHC ligands despite robust binding. Analysis of 3D affinity, 2D dwell time, and crystal structures of stimulatory versus non-stimulatory TCR-pMHC interactions failed to account for their different signaling outcomes. Using yeast pMHC display, we identified peptide agonists of a formerly non-responsive TCR. Single-molecule force measurements demonstrated the emergence of catch bonds in the activating TCR-pMHC interactions, correlating with exclusion of CD45 from the TCR-APC contact site. Molecular dynamics simulations of TCR-pMHC disengagement distinguished agonist from non-agonist ligands based on the acquisition of catch bonds within the TCR-pMHC interface. The isolation of catch bonds as a parameter mediating the coupling of TCR binding and signaling has important implications for TCR and antigen engineering for immunotherapy.

Immunogen-Specific Strengths and Limitations of the Activation-Induced Marker Assay for Assessing Murine Antigen-Specific CD4+ T Cell Responses.

The activation-induced marker (AIM) assay is a cytokine-independent technique to identify Ag-specific T cells based on the upregulated expression of activation markers after Ag restimulation. The method offers an alternative to intracellular cytokine staining in immunological studies, in which limited cytokine production makes the cell subsets of interest difficult to detect. Studies of lymphocytes in human and nonhuman primates have used the AIM assay to detect Ag-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. However, there is a lack of validation of the strengths and limitations of the assay in murine (Mus musculus) models of infection and vaccination. In this study, we analyzed immune responses of TCR-transgenic CD4+ T cells, including lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus-specific SMARTA, OVA-specific OT-II, and diabetogenic BDC2.5-transgenic T cells, and measured the ability of the AIM assay to effectively identify these cells to upregulate AIM markers OX40 and CD25 following culture with cognate Ag. Our findings indicate that the AIM assay is effective for identifying the relative frequency of protein immunization-induced effector and memory CD4+ T cells, whereas the AIM assay had reduced ability to identify specific cells induced by viral infection, particularly during chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection. Evaluation of polyclonal CD4+ T cell responses to acute viral infection demonstrated that the AIM assay can detect a proportion of both high- and low-affinity cells. Together, our findings indicate that the AIM assay can be an effective tool for relative quantification of murine Ag-specific CD4+ T cells to protein vaccination, while demonstrating its limitations during conditions of acute and chronic infection.

An Engineered T Cell Receptor Variant Realizes the Limits of Functional Binding Modes.

T cell receptors (TCRs) orchestrate cellular immunity by recognizing peptides presented by a range of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins. Naturally occurring TCRs bind the composite peptide/MHC surface, recognizing peptides that are structurally and chemically compatible with the TCR binding site. Here we describe a molecularly evolved TCR variant that binds the human class I MHC protein HLA-A2 independent of the bound peptide, achieved by a drastic perturbation of the TCR binding geometry that places the molecule far from the peptide binding groove. This unique geometry is unsupportive of normal T cell signaling. A substantial divergence between affinity measurements in solution and in two dimensions between proximal cell membranes leads us to attribute the lack of signaling to steric hindrance that limits binding in the confines of a cell-cell interface. Our results provide an example of how receptor binding geometry can impact T cell function and provide further support for the view that germline-encoded residues in TCR binding loops evolved to drive productive TCR recognition and signaling.

CD4 T Cell Affinity Diversity Is Equally Maintained during Acute and Chronic Infection.

TCR affinity for peptide MHC dictates the functional efficiency of T cells and their propensity to differentiate into effectors and form memory. However, in the context of chronic infections, it is unclear what the overall profile of TCR affinity for Ag is and if it differs from acute infections. Using the comprehensive affinity analysis provided by the two-dimensional micropipette adhesion frequency assay and the common indirect affinity evaluation methods of MHC class II tetramer and functional avidity, we tracked IAb GP61-80-specific cells in the mouse model of acute (Armstrong) and chronic (clone 13) lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection. In each response, we show CD4 T cell population affinity peaks at the effector phase and declines with memory. Of interest, the range and average relative two-dimensional affinity was equivalent between acute and chronic infection, indicating chronic Ag exposure did not skew TCR affinity. In contrast, functional and tetramer avidity measurements revealed divergent results and lacked a consistent correlation with TCR affinity. Our findings highlight that the immune system maintains a diverse range in TCR affinity even under the pressures of chronic Ag stimulation.

Relationship of 2D Affinity to T Cell Functional Outcomes.

T cells are critical for a functioning adaptive immune response and a strong correlation exists between T cell responses and T cell receptor (TCR): peptide-loaded MHC (pMHC) binding. Studies that utilize pMHC tetramer, multimers, and assays of three-dimensional (3D) affinity have provided advancements in our understanding of T cell responses across different diseases. However, these technologies focus on higher affinity and avidity T cells while missing the lower affinity responders. Lower affinity TCRs in expanded polyclonal populations almost always constitute a significant proportion of the response with cells mediating different effector functions associated with variation in the proportion of high and low affinity T cells. Since lower affinity T cells expand and are functional, a fully inclusive view of T cell responses is required to accurately interpret the role of affinity for adaptive T cell immunity. For example, low affinity T cells are capable of inducing autoimmune disease and T cells with an intermediate affinity have been shown to exhibit an optimal anti-tumor response. Here, we focus on how affinity of the TCR may relate to T cell phenotype and provide examples where 2D affinity influences functional outcomes.

Didox (3,4-dihydroxybenzohydroxamic acid) suppresses IgE-mediated mast cell activation through attenuation of NFκB and AP-1 transcription.

Mast cell activation via the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) elicits production of inflammatory mediators central to allergic disease. As a synthetic antioxidant and a potent ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) inhibitor, Didox (3,4-dihyroxybenzohydroxamic acid) has been tested in clinical trials for cancer and is an attractive therapeutic for inflammatory disease. We found that Didox treatment of mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMC) reduced IgE-stimulated degranulation and cytokine production, including IL-6, IL-13, TNF and MIP-1a (CCL3). These effects were consistent using BMMC of different genetic backgrounds and peritoneal mast cells. While the RNR inhibitor hydroxyurea had little or no effect on IgE-mediated function, high concentrations of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine mimicked Didox-mediated suppression. Furthermore, Didox increased expression of the antioxidant genes superoxide dismutase and catalase, and suppressed DCFH-DA fluorescence, indicating reduced reactive oxygen species production. Didox effects were not due to changes in FcεRI expression or cell viability, suggesting it inhibits signaling required for inflammatory cytokine production. In support of this, we found that Didox reduced FcεRI-mediated AP-1 and NFκB transcriptional activity. Finally, Didox suppressed mast cell-dependent, IgE-mediated passive systemic anaphylaxis in vivo. These data demonstrate the potential use for Didox asa means of antagonizing mast cell responses in allergic disease.

The sphingosine-1-phosphate/sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 axis regulates early airway T-cell infiltration in murine mast cell-dependent acute allergic responses.

BACKGROUND: Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid produced by mast cells (MCs) on cross-linking of their high-affinity receptors for IgE by antigen that can amplify MC responses by binding to its S1P receptors. An acute MC-dependent allergic reaction can lead to systemic shock, but the early events of its development in lung tissues have not been investigated, and S1P functions in the onset of allergic processes remain to be examined. OBJECTIVE: We used a highly specific neutralizing anti-S1P antibody (mAb) and the sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1PR2) antagonist JTE-013 to study the signaling contributions of S1P and S1PR2 to MC- and IgE-dependent airway allergic responses in mice within minutes after antigen challenge. METHODS: Allergic reaction was triggered by a single intraperitoneal dose of antigen in sensitized mice pretreated intraperitoneally with anti-S1P, isotype control mAb, JTE-013, or vehicle before antigen challenge. RESULTS: Kinetics experiments revealed early pulmonary infiltration of mostly T cells around blood vessels of sensitized mice 20 minutes after antigen exposure. Pretreatment with anti-S1P mAb inhibited in vitro MC activation, as well as in vivo development of airway infiltration and MC activation, reducing serum levels of histamine, cytokines, and the chemokines monocyte chemoattractant protein 1/CCL2, macrophage inflammatory protein 1α/CCL3, and RANTES/CCL5. S1PR2 antagonism or deficiency or MC deficiency recapitulated these results. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated MC S1PR2 dependency for chemokine release and the necessity for signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 activation. CONCLUSION: Activation of S1PR2 by S1P and downstream signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 signaling in MCs regulate early T-cell recruitment to antigen-challenged lungs through chemokine production.

Cbl-b mitigates the responsiveness of naive CD8+ T cells that experience extensive tonic T cell receptor signaling.

Naive T cells experience tonic T cell receptor (TCR) signaling in response to self-antigens presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in secondary lymphoid organs. We investigated how relatively weak or strong tonic TCR signals influence naive CD8+ T cell responses to stimulation with foreign antigens. The heterogeneous expression of Nur77-GFP, a transgenic reporter of tonic TCR signaling, in naive CD8+ T cells suggests variable intensities or durations of tonic TCR signaling. Although the expression of genes associated with acutely stimulated T cells was increased in Nur77-GFPHI cells, these cells were hyporesponsive to agonist TCR stimulation compared with Nur77-GFPLO cells. This hyporesponsiveness manifested as diminished activation marker expression and decreased secretion of IFN-γ and IL-2. The protein abundance of the ubiquitin ligase Cbl-b, a negative regulator of TCR signaling, was greater in Nur77-GFPHI cells than in Nur77-GFPLO cells, and Cbl-b deficiency partially restored the responsiveness of Nur77-GFPHI cells. Our data suggest that the cumulative effects of previously experienced tonic TCR signaling recalibrate naive CD8+ T cell responsiveness. These changes include gene expression changes and negative regulation partially dependent on Cbl-b. This cell-intrinsic negative feedback loop may enable the immune system to restrain naive CD8+ T cells with higher self-reactivity.

Strong Basal/Tonic TCR Signals Are Associated with Negative Regulation of Naive CD4+ T Cells.

T cells experience varying intensities of tonic or basal TCR signaling in response to self-peptides presented by MHC (self-pMHC) in vivo. We analyzed four subpopulations of mouse naive CD4+ cells that express different levels of Nur77-GFP and Ly6C, surrogate markers that positively and inversely correlate with the strength of tonic TCR signaling, respectively. Adoptive transfer studies suggest that relatively weak or strong Nur77-GFP intensity in thymocytes tends to be maintained in mature T cells. Two-dimensional affinity measurements were lowest for Nur77-GFPloLy6C+ cells and highest for Nur77-GFPhiLy6C- cells, highlighting a positive correlation between apparent TCR affinity and tonic TCR signal strength. Despite experiencing the strongest tonic TCR signaling, Nur77-GFPhiLy6C- cells were least responsive to multiple concentrations of a cognate or suboptimal pMHC. Gene expression analyses suggest that Nur77-GFPhiLy6C- cells induce a gene expression program that has similarities with that of acutely stimulated T cells. However, strong tonic TCR signaling also correlates with increased expression of genes with inhibitory functions, including coinhibitory receptors. Similarly, assay for transposase-accessible chromatin with sequencing analyses suggested that increased tonic TCR signal strength correlated with increased chromatin accessibility associated with genes that have positive and inhibitory roles in T cell activation. Strikingly, Nur77-GFPhiLy6C- cells exhibited differential accessibility within regions of Cd200r1 and Tox that were similar in location to differentially accessible regions previously identified in exhausted CD8+ T cells. We propose that constitutive strong tonic TCR signaling triggers adaptations detectable at both the transcriptional and epigenetic levels, ultimately contributing to the tuning of T cell responsiveness.

IL-10-Functionalized Hydrogels Support Immunosuppressive Dendritic Cell Phenotype and Function.

Biomaterial systems such as hydrogels enable localized delivery and postinjection modulation of cellular therapies in a wide array of contexts. Biomaterials as adjuvants have been an active area of investigation, but the study of functionalized biomaterials supporting immunosuppressive cell therapies for tolerogenic applications is still nascent. Here, we developed a 4-arm poly(ethylene-glycol)-maleimide (PEG-4MAL) hydrogel functionalized with interleukin-10 (IL-10) to improve the local delivery and efficacy of a cell therapy against autoimmune disease. The biophysical and biochemical properties of PEG-4MAL hydrogels were optimized to support dendritic cell (DC) viability and an immature phenotype. IL-10-functionalized PEG-4MAL (PEG-IL10) hydrogels exhibited controlled IL-10 release, extended the duration of DC support, and protected DCs from inflammatory assault. After incorporation in PEG-IL10 hydrogels, these DCs induced CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) during in vitro coculture. These studies serve as a proof-of-concept for improving the efficacy of immunosuppressive cell therapies through biomaterial delivery. The flexible nature of this system enables its widespread application across a breadth of other tolerogenic applications for future investigation.

Tuning T cell receptor sensitivity through catch bond engineering.

Adoptive cell therapy using engineered T cell receptors (TCRs) is a promising approach for targeting cancer antigens, but tumor-reactive TCRs are often weakly responsive to their target ligands, peptide-major histocompatibility complexes (pMHCs). Affinity-matured TCRs can enhance the efficacy of TCR-T cell therapy but can also cross-react with off-target antigens, resulting in organ immunopathology. We developed an alternative strategy to isolate TCR mutants that exhibited high activation signals coupled with low-affinity pMHC binding through the acquisition of catch bonds. Engineered analogs of a tumor antigen MAGE-A3-specific TCR maintained physiological affinities while exhibiting enhanced target killing potency and undetectable cross-reactivity, compared with a high-affinity clinically tested TCR that exhibited lethal cross-reactivity with a cardiac antigen. Catch bond engineering is a biophysically based strategy to tune high-sensitivity TCRs for T cell therapy with reduced potential for adverse cross-reactivity.

MHC class II tetramers engineered for enhanced binding to CD4 improve detection of antigen-specific T cells.

The ability to identify T cells that recognize specific peptide antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules has enabled enumeration and molecular characterization of the lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Fluorophore-labeled peptide:MHC class I (p:MHCI) tetramers are well-established reagents for identifying antigen-specific CD8+ T cells by flow cytometry, but efforts to extend the approach to CD4+ T cells have been less successful, perhaps owing to lower binding strength between CD4 and MHC class II (MHCII) molecules. Here we show that p:MHCII tetramers engineered by directed evolution for enhanced CD4 binding outperform conventional tetramers for the detection of cognate T cells. Using the engineered tetramers, we identified about twice as many antigen-specific CD4+ T cells in mice immunized against multiple peptides than when using traditional tetramers. CD4 affinity-enhanced p:MHCII tetramers, therefore, allow direct sampling of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells that cannot be accessed with conventional p:MHCII tetramer technology. These new reagents could provide a deeper understanding of the T cell repertoire.

Canonical T cell receptor docking on peptide-MHC is essential for T cell signaling.

T cell receptor (TCR) recognition of peptide-major histocompatibility complexes (pMHCs) is characterized by a highly conserved docking polarity. Whether this polarity is driven by recognition or signaling constraints remains unclear. Using "reversed-docking" TCRß-variable (TRBV) 17+ TCRs from the naïve mouse CD8+ T cell repertoire that recognizes the H-2Db-NP366 epitope, we demonstrate that their inability to support T cell activation and in vivo recruitment is a direct consequence of reversed docking polarity and not TCR-pMHCI binding or clustering characteristics. Canonical TCR-pMHCI docking optimally localizes CD8/Lck to the CD3 complex, which is prevented by reversed TCR-pMHCI polarity. The requirement for canonical docking was circumvented by dissociating Lck from CD8. Thus, the consensus TCR-pMHC docking topology is mandated by T cell signaling constraints.

A Hybrid Insulin Epitope Maintains High 2D Affinity for Diabetogenic T Cells in the Periphery.

ß-Cell antigen recognition by autoreactive T cells is essential in type 1 diabetes (T1D) pathogenesis. Recently, insulin hybrid peptides (HIPs) were identified as strong agonists for CD4 diabetogenic T cells. Here, using BDC2.5 transgenic and NOD mice, we investigated T-cell recognition of the HIP2.5 epitope, which is a fusion of insulin C-peptide and chromogranin A (ChgA) fragments, and compared it with the WE14 and ChgA29 -42 epitopes. We measured in situ two-dimensional affinity on individual live T cells from thymus, spleen, pancreatic lymph nodes, and islets before and after diabetes. Although preselection BDC2.5 thymocytes possess higher affinity than splenic BDC2.5 T cells for all three epitopes, peripheral splenic T cells maintained high affinity only to the HIP2.5 epitope. In polyclonal NOD mice, a high frequency (∼40%) of HIP2.5-specific islet T cells were identified at both prediabetic and diabetic stages comprising two distinct high- and low-affinity populations that differed in affinity by 100-fold. This high frequency of high- and low-affinity HIP2.5 T cells in the islets potentially represents a major risk factor in diabetes pathogenesis.

IL-21 from high-affinity CD4 T cells drives differentiation of brain-resident CD8 T cells during persistent viral infection.

Development of tissue-resident memory (TRM) CD8 T cells depends on CD4 T cells. In polyomavirus central nervous system infection, brain CXCR5hi PD-1hi CD4 T cells produce interleukin-21 (IL-21), and CD8 T cells lacking IL-21 receptors (IL21R-/-) fail to become bTRM IL-21+ CD4 T cells exhibit elevated T cell receptor (TCR) affinity and higher TCR density. IL21R-/- brain CD8 T cells do not express CD103, depend on vascular CD8 T cells for maintenance, are antigen recall defective, and lack TRM core signature genes. CD4 T cell-deficient and IL21R-/- brain CD8 T cells show similar deficiencies in expression of genes for oxidative metabolism, and intrathecal delivery of IL-21 to CD4 T cell-depleted mice restores expression of electron transport genes in CD8 T cells to wild-type levels. Thus, high-affinity CXCR5hi PD-1hi CD4 T cells in the brain produce IL-21, which drives CD8 bTRM differentiation in response to a persistent viral infection.

Discriminative T cell recognition of cross-reactive islet-antigens is associated with HLA-DQ8 transdimer-mediated autoimmune diabetes.

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DQ8 transdimer (HLA-DQA1*0501/DQB1*0302) confers exceptionally high risk in autoimmune diabetes. However, little is known about HLA-DQ8 transdimer-restricted CD4 T cell recognition, an event crucial for triggering HLA-DQ8 transdimer-specific anti-islet immunity. Here, we report a high degree of epitope overlap and T cell promiscuity between susceptible HLA-DQ8 and HLA-DQ8 transdimer. Despite preservation of putative residues for T cell receptor (TCR) contact, stronger disease-associated responses to cross-reactive, immunodominant islet epitopes are elicited by HLA-DQ8 transdimer. Mutagenesis at the α chain of HLA-DQ8 transdimer in complex with the disease-relevant GAD65250-266 peptide and in silico analysis reveal the DQ α52 residue located within the N-terminal edge of the peptide-binding cleft for the enhanced T cell reactivity, altering avidity and biophysical affinity between TCR and HLA-peptide complexes. Accordingly, a structurally promiscuous but nondegenerate TCR-HLA-peptide interface is pivotal for HLA-DQ8 transdimer-mediated autoimmune diabetes.

2D Kinetic Analysis of TCR and CD8 Coreceptor for LCMV GP33 Epitopes.

The LCMV GP33 CD8 epitope has long been one of the most widely used antigens in viral immunology. Of note, almost all of the in vitro analyses of CD8 T cell responses to this epitope make use of an altered peptide ligand (APL) in which the cysteine from the original 9-mer peptide (KAVYNFATC) is substituted by a methionine at position 41 (KAVYNFATM). In addition, it is possible that the antigen processed during natural LCMV infection is an 11-mer peptide (KAVYNFATCGI) rather than the widely used 9-mer. Although previous affinity measurements using purified proteins for these antigen variants revealed minimal differences, we applied highly sensitive two dimensional (2D) biophysical based techniques to further dissect TCR interaction with these closely related GP33 variants. The kinetic analyses of affinity provided by the 2D micropipette adhesion frequency assay (2D-MP) and bond lifetime under force analyzed using a biomembrane force probe (BFP) revealed significant differences between 41M, 41C and the 11-mer 41CGI antigen. We found a hierarchy in 2D affinity as 41M peptide displayed augmented TCR 2D affinity compared to 41C and 41CGI. These differences were also maintained in the presence of CD8 coreceptor and when analysis of total TCR:pMHC and CD8:pMHC bonds were considered. Moreover, the three ligands displayed dramatic differences in the bond lifetimes generated under force, in particular the 41CGI variant with the lowest 2D affinity demonstrated a 15-fold synergistic contribution of the CD8 coreceptor to overall bond lifetime. Our analyses emphasize the sensitivity of single cell and single bond 2D kinetic measurements in distinguishing between related agonist peptides.