Complex IV subunit isoform COX6A2 protects fast-spiking interneurons from oxidative stress and supports their function.

Parvalbumin-positive (PV+ ) fast-spiking interneurons are essential to control the firing activity of principal neuron ensembles, thereby regulating cognitive processes. The high firing frequency activity of PV+ interneurons imposes high-energy demands on their metabolism that must be supplied by distinctive machinery for energy generation. Exploring single-cell transcriptomic data for the mouse cortex, we identified a metabolism-associated gene with highly restricted expression to PV+ interneurons: Cox6a2, which codes for an isoform of a cytochrome c oxidase subunit. Cox6a2 deletion in mice disrupts perineuronal nets and enhances oxidative stress in PV+ interneurons, which in turn impairs the maturation of their morphological and functional properties. Such dramatic effects were likely due to an essential role of COX6A2 in energy balance of PV+ interneurons, underscored by a decrease in the ATP-to-ADP ratio in Cox6a2-/- PV+ interneurons. Energy disbalance and aberrant maturation likely hinder the integration of PV+ interneurons into cortical neuronal circuits, leading to behavioral alterations in mice. Additionally, in a human patient bearing mutations in COX6A2, we found a potential association of the mutations with mental/neurological abnormalities.

Impaired GABAergic regulation and developmental immaturity in interneurons derived from the medial ganglionic eminence in the tuberous sclerosis complex.

GABAergic interneurons play a critical role in maintaining neural circuit balance, excitation-inhibition regulation, and cognitive function modulation. In tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), GABAergic neuron dysfunction contributes to disrupted network activity and associated neurological symptoms, assumingly in a cell type-specific manner. This GABAergic centric study focuses on identifying specific interneuron subpopulations within TSC, emphasizing the unique characteristics of medial ganglionic eminence (MGE)- and caudal ganglionic eminence (CGE)-derived interneurons. Using single-nuclei RNA sequencing in TSC patient material, we identify somatostatin-expressing (SST+) interneurons as a unique and immature subpopulation in TSC. The disrupted maturation of SST+ interneurons may undergo an incomplete switch from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic signaling during development, resulting in reduced inhibitory properties. Notably, this study reveals markers of immaturity specifically in SST+ interneurons, including an abnormal NKCC1/KCC2 ratio, indicating an imbalance in chloride homeostasis crucial for the postsynaptic consequences of GABAergic signaling as well as the downregulation of GABAA receptor subunits, GABRA1, and upregulation of GABRA2. Further exploration of SST+ interneurons revealed altered localization patterns of SST+ interneurons in TSC brain tissue, concentrated in deeper cortical layers, possibly linked to cortical dyslamination. In the epilepsy context, our research underscores the diverse cell type-specific roles of GABAergic interneurons in shaping seizures, advocating for precise therapeutic considerations. Moreover, this study illuminates the potential contribution of SST+ interneurons to TSC pathophysiology, offering insights for targeted therapeutic interventions.

Maternal inflammation has a profound effect on cortical interneuron development in a stage and subtype-specific manner.

Severe infections during pregnancy are one of the major risk factors for cognitive impairment in the offspring. It has been suggested that maternal inflammation leads to dysfunction of cortical GABAergic interneurons that in turn underlies cognitive impairment of the affected offspring. However, the evidence comes largely from studies of adult or mature brains and how the impairment of inhibitory circuits arises upon maternal inflammation is unknown. Here we show that maternal inflammation affects multiple steps of cortical GABAergic interneuron development, i.e., proliferation of precursor cells, migration and positioning of neuroblasts, as well as neuronal maturation. Importantly, the development of distinct subtypes of cortical GABAergic interneurons was discretely impaired as a result of maternal inflammation. This translated into a reduction in cell numbers, redistribution across cortical regions and layers, and changes in morphology and cellular properties. Furthermore, selective vulnerability of GABAergic interneuron subtypes was associated with the stage of brain development. Thus, we propose that maternally derived insults have developmental stage-dependent effects, which contribute to the complex etiology of cognitive impairment in the affected offspring.

Maternal inhalation of carbon black nanoparticles induces neurodevelopmental changes in mouse offspring.

BACKGROUND: Engineered nanoparticles are smaller than 100 nm and designed to improve or creating even new physico-chemical properties. Consequently, toxicological properties of materials may change as size reaches the nm size-range. We examined outcomes related to the central nervous system in the offspring following maternal inhalation exposure to nanosized carbon black particles (Printex 90). METHODS: Time-mated mice (NMRI) were exposed by inhalation, for 45 min/day to 0, 4.6 or 37 mg/m3 aerosolized carbon black on gestation days 4-18, i.e. for a total of 15 days. Outcomes included maternal lung inflammation (differential cell count in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and Saa3 mRNA expression in lung tissue), offspring neurohistopathology and behaviour in the open field test. RESULTS: Carbon black exposure did not cause lung inflammation in the exposed females, measured 11 or 28-29 days post-exposure. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression levels were dose-dependently increased in astrocytes around blood vessels in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus in six weeks old offspring, indicative of reactive astrogliosis. Also enlarged lysosomal granules were observed in brain perivascular macrophages (PVMs) in the prenatally exposed offspring. The number of parvalbumin-positive interneurons and the expression levels of parvalbumin were decreased in the motor and prefrontal cortices at weaning and 120 days of age in the prenatally exposed offspring. In the open field test, behaviour was dose-dependently altered following maternal exposure to Printex 90, at 90 days of age. Prenatally exposed female offspring moved a longer total distance, and especially males spent significantly longer time in the central zone of the maze. In the offspring, the described effects were long-lasting as they were present at all time points investigated. CONCLUSION: The present study reports for the first time that maternal inhalation exposure to Printex 90 carbon black induced dose-dependent denaturation of PVM and reactive astrocytes, similarly to the findings observed following maternal exposure to Printex 90 by airway instillation. Of note, some of the observed effects have striking similarities with those observed in mouse models of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Epobis is a Nonerythropoietic and Neuroprotective Agonist of the Erythropoietin Receptor with Anti-Inflammatory and Memory Enhancing Effects.

The cytokine erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates proliferation and differentiation of erythroid progenitor cells. Moreover, EPO has neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative effects, but the use of EPO as a neuroprotective agent is hampered by its erythropoietic activity. We have recently designed the synthetic, dendrimeric peptide, Epobis, derived from the sequence of human EPO. This peptide binds the EPO receptor and promotes neuritogenesis and neuronal cell survival. Here we demonstrate that Epobis in vitro promotes neuritogenesis in primary motoneurons and has anti-inflammatory effects as demonstrated by its ability to decrease TNF release from activated AMJ2-C8 macrophages and rat primary microglia. When administered systemically Epobis is detectable in both plasma and cerebrospinal fluid, demonstrating that the peptide crosses the blood-brain barrier. Importantly, Epobis is not erythropoietic, but systemic administration of Epobis in rats delays the clinical signs of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of multiple sclerosis, and the peptide has long-term, but not short-term, effects on working memory, detected as an improved social memory 3 days after administration. These data reveal Epobis to be a nonerythropoietic and neuroprotective EPO receptor agonist with anti-inflammatory and memory enhancing properties.

Anti-inflammatory properties of a novel peptide interleukin 1 receptor antagonist.

BACKGROUND: Interleukin 1 (IL-1) is implicated in neuroinflammation, an essential component of neurodegeneration. We evaluated the potential anti-inflammatory effect of a novel peptide antagonist of IL-1 signaling, Ilantide. METHODS: We investigated the binding of Ilantide to IL-1 receptor type I (IL-1RI) using surface plasmon resonance, the inhibition of Il-1ß-induced activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) in HEK-Blue cells that contained an IL-1ß-sensitive reporter, the secretion of TNF-α in macrophages, protection against IL-1-induced apoptosis in neonatal pancreatic islets, and the penetration of Ilantide through the blood-brain barrier using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We studied the effects of the peptide on social behavior and memory in rat models of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and amyloid-induced neuroinflammation, respectively, and its effect in a rat model of experimental autoimmune enchephalomyelitis. RESULTS: Ilantide bound IL-1RI, inhibited the IL-1ß-induced activation of NF-κB, and inhibited the secretion of TNF-α in vitro. Ilantide protected pancreatic islets from apoptosis in vitro and reduced inflammation in an animal model of arthritis. The peptide penetrated the blood-brain barrier. It reduced the deficits in social activity and memory in LPS- and amyloid-treated animals and delayed the development of experimental autoimmune enchephalomyelitis. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that Ilantide is a novel and potent IL-1RI antagonist that is able to reduce inflammatory damage in the central nervous system and pancreatic islets.

Neuroligin-1 induces neurite outgrowth through interaction with neurexin-1ß and activation of fibroblast growth factor receptor-1.

Neurexin-1 (NRXN1) and neuroligin-1 (NLGN1) are synaptic cell adhesion molecules that connect pre- and postsynaptic neurons at synapses and mediate signaling across the synapse, which modulates synaptic activity and determines the properties of neuronal networks. Defects in the genes encoding NLGN1 have been linked to cognitive diseases such as autism. The roles of both NRXN1 and NLGN1 during synaptogenesis have been studied extensively, but little is known about the role of these molecules in neuritogenesis, which eventually results in neuronal circuitry formation. The present study investigated the neuritogenic effect of NLGN1 in cultures of hippocampal neurons. Our results show that NLGN1, both in soluble and membrane-bound forms, induces neurite outgrowth that depends on the interaction with NRXN1ß and on activation of fibroblast growth factor receptor-1. In addition, we demonstrate that a synthetic peptide, termed neurolide, which is modeled after a part of the binding interface of NLGN1 for NRXN1ß, can bind to NRXN1ß and mimic the biological properties of NLGN1 in vitro.

Loss of maturity and homeostatic functions in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex-derived astrocytes.

Introduction: Constitutive activation of the mTOR pathway, as observed in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC), leads to glial dysfunction and subsequent epileptogenesis. Although astrocytes are considered important mediators for synaptic clearance and phagocytosis, little is known on how astrocytes contribute to the epileptogenic network. Methods: We employed singlenuclei RNA sequencing and a hybrid fetal calf serum (FCS)/FCS-free cell culture model to explore the capacity of TSC-derived astrocytes to maintain glutamate homeostasis and clear debris in their environment. Results: We found that TSC astrocytes show reduced maturity on RNA and protein level as well as the inability to clear excess glutamate through the loss of both enzymes and transporters complementary to a reduction of phagocytic capabilities. Discussion: Our study provides evidence of mechanistic alterations in TSC astrocytes, underscoring the significant impairment of their supportive functions. These insights enhance our understanding of TSC pathophysiology and hold potential implications for future therapeutic interventions.

A new agonist of the erythropoietin receptor, Epobis, induces neurite outgrowth and promotes neuronal survival.

Apart from its hematopoietic activity, erythropoietin (EPO) is also known as a tissue-protective cytokine. In the brain, EPO and its receptor are up-regulated in response to insult and exert pro-survival effects. EPO binds to its receptor (EPOR) via high- and low-affinity binding sites (Sites 1 and 2, respectively), inducing conformational changes in the receptor, followed by the activation of downstream signaling cascades. Based on the crystal structure of the EPO:EPOR(2) complex, we designed a peptide, termed Epobis, whose sequence encompassed amino acids from binding Site 1. The present study shows that the Epobis peptide specifically binds to EPOR and induces neurite outgrowth from primary neurons in an EPOR-expression dependent manner. Furthermore, Epobis promoted the survival of hippocampal and cerebellar neuronal cultures after kainate treatment and KCl deprivation, respectively. Thus, we identified a new functional agonist of EPOR with the potential to promote neuroregeneration and neuroprotection.

Neuroprotective and memory enhancing properties of a dual agonist of the FGF receptor and NCAM.

The fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) plays a vital role in the development of the nervous system regulating a multitude of cellular processes. One of the interaction partners of the FGFR is the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), which is known to play an important role in neuronal development, regeneration and synaptic plasticity. Thus, simultaneous activation of FGFR- and NCAM-mediated signaling pathways may be expected to affect processes underlying neurodegenerative diseases. We here report the identification of a peptide compound, Enreptin, capable of interacting with both FGFR and NCAM. We demonstrate that this dual specificity agonist induces phosphorylation of FGFR and differentiation and survival of primary neurons in vitro, and that these effects are inhibited by abrogation of both NCAM and FGFR signaling pathways. Furthermore, Enreptin crosses the blood-brain barrier after subcutaneous administration, enhances long-term memory in normal mice and ameliorates memory deficit in mice with induced brain inflammation. Moreover, Enreptin reduces cognitive impairment and neuronal death induced by Aß25-35 in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease, and reduces the mortality rate and clinical signs of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in rats. Thus, Enreptin is an attractive candidate for the treatment of neurological diseases.

Identification of Vulnerable Interneuron Subtypes in 15q13.3 Microdeletion Syndrome Using Single-Cell Transcriptomics.

BACKGROUND: A number of rare copy number variants (CNVs) have been linked to neurodevelopmental disorders. However, because CNVs encompass many genes, it is often difficult to identify the mechanisms that lead to developmental perturbations. METHODS: We used 15q13.3 microdeletion to propose and validate a novel strategy to predict the impact of CNV genes on brain development that could further guide functional studies. We analyzed single-cell transcriptomics datasets containing cortical interneurons to identify their developmental vulnerability to 15q13.3 microdeletion, which was validated in mouse models. RESULTS: We found that Klf13-but not other 15q13.3 genes-is expressed by precursors and neuroblasts in the medial and caudal ganglionic eminences during development, with a peak of expression at embryonic day (E)13.5 and E18.5, respectively. In contrast, in the adult mouse brain, Klf13 expression is negligible. Using Df(h15q13.3)/+ and Klf13+/- embryos, we observed a precursor subtype-specific impairment in proliferation in the medial ganglionic eminence and caudal ganglionic eminence at E13.5 and E17.5, respectively, corresponding to vulnerability predicted by Klf13 expression patterns. Finally, Klf13+/- mice showed a layer-specific decrease in parvalbumin and somatostatin cortical interneurons accompanied by changes in locomotor and anxiety-related behavior. CONCLUSIONS: We show that the impact of 15q13.3 microdeletion on precursor proliferation is grounded in a reduction in Klf13 expression. The lack of Klf13 in Df(h15q13.3)/+ cortex might be the major reason for perturbed density of cortical interneurons. Thus, the behavioral defects seen in 15q13.3 microdeletion could stem from a developmental perturbation owing to selective vulnerability of cortical interneurons during sensitive stages of their development.

A peptide derived from a trans-homophilic binding site in neural cell adhesion molecule induces neurite outgrowth and neuronal survival.

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) plays a key role in neural development, regeneration, and synaptic plasticity. The crystal structure of a fragment of NCAM comprising the three N-terminal immunoglobulin (Ig)-like modules indicates that the first and second Ig modules bind to each other, thereby presumably mediating dimerization of NCAM molecules expressed on the same cell surface (cis-interactions), whereas the third Ig module, through interactions with the first or second Ig module, mediates interactions between NCAM molecules expressed on the surface of opposing cells (trans-interactions). We have designed a new potent peptide ligand of NCAM, termed plannexin, based on a discontinuous sequence in the second NCAM Ig module that represents a homophilic binding site for an opposing third Ig module. The peptide was found by surface plasmon resonance analysis to bind the third NCAM Ig module. It promoted survival of cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) and also induced neurite extension in cultures of dopaminergic neurons and CGNs; the latter effect was shown to be dependent on NCAM expression, indicating that plannexin mimics the neuritogenic effect of homophilic NCAM binding.

A metallothionein mimetic peptide protects neurons against kainic acid-induced excitotoxicity.

Metallothioneins I and II (MTI/II) are metal-binding proteins overexpressed in response to brain injury. Recently, we have designed a peptide, termed EmtinB, which is modeled after the beta-domain of MT-II and mimics the biological effects of MTI/II in vitro. Here, we demonstrate the neuroprotective effect of EmtinB in the in vitro and in vivo models of kainic acid (KA)-induced neurotoxicity. We show that EmtinB passes the blood-brain barrier and is detectable in plasma for up to 24 hr. Treatment with EmtinB significantly attenuates seizures in C57BL/6J mice exposed to moderate (20 mg/kg) and high (30 mg/kg) KA doses and tends to decrease mortality induced by the high KA dose. Histopathological evaluation of hippocampal (CA3 and CA1) and cortical areas of mice treated with 20 mg/kg KA shows that EmtinB treatment reduces KA-induced neurodegeneration in the CA1 region. These findings establish EmtinB as a promising target for therapeutic development.

Genetic modification increases the survival and the neuroregenerative properties of transplanted neural stem cells.

Cell therapy raises hopes high for better treatment of brain disorders. However, the majority of transplanted cells often die soon after transplantation, and those that survive initially continue to die in the subacute phase, diminishing the impact of transplantations. In this study, we genetically modified transplanted human neural stem cells (hNSCs), from 2 distant embryonic stem cell lines (H9 and RC17), to express 1 of 4 prosurvival factors - Hif1a, Akt1, Bcl-2, or Bcl-xl - and studied how these modifications improve short- and long-term survival of transplanted hNSCs. All genetic modifications dramatically increased survival of the transplanted hNSCs. Importantly, 3 out of 4 modifications also enhanced the exit of hNSCs from the cell cycle, thus avoiding aberrant growth of the transplants. Bcl-xl expression provided the strongest protection of transplanted cells, reducing both immediate and delayed cell death, and stimulated hNSC differentiation toward neuronal and oligodendroglial lineages. By designing hNSCs with drug-controlled expression of Bcl-xl, we demonstrated that short-term expression of a prosurvival factor can ensure the long-term survival of transplanted cells. Importantly, transplantation of Bcl-xl-expressing hNSCs into mice suffering from stroke improved behavioral outcome and recovery of motor activity in mice.

The soluble neurexin-1ß ectodomain causes calcium influx and augments dendritic outgrowth and synaptic transmission.

Classically, neurexins are thought to mediate synaptic connections through trans interactions with a number of different postsynaptic partners. Neurexins are cleaved by metalloproteases in an activity-dependent manner, releasing the soluble extracellular domain. Here, we report that in both immature (before synaptogenesis) and mature (after synaptogenesis) hippocampal neurons, the soluble neurexin-1ß ectodomain triggers acute Ca2+-influx at the dendritic/postsynaptic side. In both cases, neuroligin-1 expression was required. In immature neurons, calcium influx required N-type calcium channels and stimulated dendritic outgrowth and neuronal survival. In mature glutamatergic neurons the neurexin-1ß ectodomain stimulated calcium influx through NMDA-receptors, which increased presynaptic release probability. In contrast, prolonged exposure to the ectodomain led to inhibition of synaptic transmission. This secondary inhibition was activity- and neuroligin-1 dependent and caused by a reduction in the readily-releasable pool of vesicles. A synthetic peptide modeled after the neurexin-1ß:neuroligin-1 interaction site reproduced the cellular effects of the neurexin-1ß ectodomain. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that the soluble neurexin ectodomain stimulates growth of neurons and exerts acute and chronic effects on trans-synaptic signaling involved in setting synaptic strength.

Neural cell adhesion molecule induces intracellular signaling via multiple mechanisms of Ca2+ homeostasis.

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) plays a pivotal role in the development of the nervous system, promoting neuronal differentiation via homophilic (NCAM-NCAM) as well as heterophilic (NCAM-fibroblast growth factor receptor [FGFR]) interactions. NCAM-induced intracellular signaling has been shown to affect and be dependent on the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). However, the molecular basis of this remains unclear. In this study, we determined [Ca2+]i regulating mechanisms involved in intracellular signaling induced by NCAM. To mimic the effect of homophilic NCAM interaction on [Ca2+]i in vitro, we used a peptide derived from a homophilic binding site of NCAM, termed P2, which triggers signaling cascades similar to those activated by NCAM-NCAM interaction. We found that P2 increased [Ca2+]i in primary hippocampal neurons. This effect depended on two signaling pathways. The first pathway was associated with activation of FGFR, phospholipase Cgamma, and production of diacylglycerol, and the second pathway involved Src-family kinases. Moreover, NCAM-mediated Ca2+ entry required activation of nonselective cation and T-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. These channels, together with the Src-family kinases, were also involved in neuritogenesis induced by physiological, homophilic NCAM interactions. Thus, unanticipated mechanisms of Ca2+ homeostasis are shown to be activated by NCAM and to contribute to neuronal differentiation.

Artemin and an Artemin-Derived Peptide, Artefin, Induce Neuronal Survival, and Differentiation Through Ret and NCAM.

Artemin (ARTN) is a neurotrophic factor from the GDNF family ligands (GFLs) that is involved in development of the nervous system and neuronal differentiation and survival. ARTN signals through a complex receptor system consisting of the RET receptor tyrosine kinase and a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored co-receptor GFL receptor α, GFRα3. We found that ARTN binds directly to neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and that ARTN-induced neuritogenesis requires NCAM expression and activation of NCAM-associated signaling partners, thus corroborating that NCAM is an alternative receptor for ARTN. We designed a small peptide, artefin, that could interact with GFRα3 and demonstrated that this peptide agonist induces RET phosphorylation and mimics the biological functions of ARTN - neuroprotection and neurite outgrowth. Moreover, artefin mimicked the binding of ARTN to NCAM and required NCAM expression and activation for its neurite elongation effect, thereby suggesting that artefin represents a binding site for NCAM within ARTN. We showed that biological effects of ARTN and artefin can be inhibited by abrogation of both NCAM and RET, suggesting a more complex signaling mechanism that previously thought. As NCAM plays a significant role in neurodevelopment, regeneration, and synaptic plasticity we suggest that ARTN and its mimetics are promising candidates for treatment of neurological disorders and warrant further investigations.

Characterization of BASP1-mediated neurite outgrowth.

The brain acid-soluble protein BASP1 (CAP-23, NAP-22) belongs to the family of growth-associated proteins, which also includes GAP-43, a protein recently shown to regulate neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM)-mediated neurite outgrowth. Here, the effects of BASP1 overexpression were investigated in PC12E2 cells and primary hippocampal neurons. BASP1 overexpression stimulated neurite outgrowth in both cell types. The effects of BASP1 and trans-homophilic NCAM interactions were additive, and BASP1-induced neurite outgrowth was not inhibited by ectopic expression of cytoplasmic NCAM domains. Furthermore, inhibition of signaling via the fibroblast growth factor receptor, Src-family nonreceptor tyrosine kinases, protein kinase C, or GSK3beta, and expression of constructs of the cytoskeletal proteins spectrin and tau inhibited NCAM- but not BASP1-induced neurite outgrowth. Expression of BASP1 mutated at the serine-5 phosphorylation site stimulated neurite outgrowth to a degree comparable to that observed in response to overexpression of wild-type BASP1, whereas expression of BASP1 mutated at the myristoylation site at glycine-1 completely abrogated the stimulatory effects of the protein on neurite outgrowth. Finally, coexpression experiments with dominant negative and wild-type versions of GAP-43 and BASP1 demonstrated that the two proteins could substitute for each other with respect to induction of NCAM-independent neurite outgrowth, whereas BASP1 was unable to replace the stimulatory effect of GAP-43 on NCAM-mediated neurite outgrowth. These observations demonstrate that BASP1 and GAP-43 have overlapping, but not identical, functions in relation to neurite outgrowth and indicate that the main function of BASP1 is to regulate the organization and morphology of the plasma membrane.

Identification of NCAM-binding peptides promoting neurite outgrowth via a heterotrimeric G-protein-coupled pathway.

A combinatorial library of undecapeptides was produced and utilized for the isolation of peptide binding to the fibronectin type 3 modules (F3I-F3II) of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM). The isolated peptides were sequenced and produced as dendrimers. Two of the peptides (denoted ENFIN2 and ENFIN11) were confirmed to bind to F3I-F3II of NCAM by surface plasmon resonance. The peptides induced neurite outgrowth in primary cerebellar neurons and PC12E2 cells, but had no apparent neuroprotective properties. NCAM is known to activate different intracellular pathways, including signaling through the fibroblast growth factor receptor, the Src-related non-receptor tyrosine kinase Fyn, and heterotrimeric G-proteins. Interestingly, neurite outgrowth stimulated by ENFIN2 and ENFIN11 was independent of signaling through fibroblast growth factor receptor and Fyn, but could be inhibited with pertussis toxin, an inhibitor of certain heterotrimeric G-proteins. Neurite outgrowth induced by trans-homophilic NCAM was unaffected by the peptides, whereas knockdown of NCAM completely abrogated ENFIN2- and ENFIN11-induced neuritogenesis. These observations suggest that ENFIN2 and ENFIN11 induce neurite outgrowth in an NCAM-dependent manner through G-protein-coupled signal transduction pathways. Thus, ENFIN2 and ENFIN11 may be valuable for exploring this particular type of NCAM-mediated signaling.

Diverse effects of a biosurfactant from Rhodococcus ruber IEGM 231 on the adhesion of resting and growing bacteria to polystyrene.

This study evaluated the effects of a trehalolipid biosurfactant produced by Rhodococcus ruber IEGM 231 on the bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation on the surface of polystyrene microplates. The adhesion of Gram-positive (Arthrobacter simplex, Bacillus subtilis, Brevibacterium linens, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Micrococcus luteus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescencens) bacteria correlated differently with the cell hydrophobicity and surface charge. In particular, exponentially growing bacterial cells with increased hydrophobicities adhered stronger to polystyrene compared to more hydrophilic stationary phase cells. Also, a moderate correlation (0.56) was found between zeta potential and adhesion values of actively growing bacteria, suggesting that less negatively charged cells adhered stronger to polystyrene. Efficient biosurfactant concentrations (10-100 mg/L) were determined, which selectively inhibited (up to 76 %) the adhesion of tested bacterial cultures, however without inhibiting their growth. The biosurfactant was more active against growing bacteria rather than resting cells, thus showing high biofilm-preventing properties. Contact angle measurements revealed more hydrophilic surface of the biosurfactant-covered polystyrene compared to bare polystyrene, which allowed less adhesion of hydrophobic bacteria. Furthermore, surface free-energy calculations showed a decrease in the Wan der Waals (γ(LW)) component and an increase in the acid-based (γ(AB)) component caused by the biosurfactant coating of polysterene. However, our results suggested that the biosurfactant inhibited the adhesion of bacteria independently on their surface charges. AFM scanning revealed three-type biosurfactant structures (micelles, cord-like assemblies and large vesicles) formed on glass, depending on concentrations used, that could lead to diverse anti-adhesive effects against different bacterial species.