Large acoustoelastic effect for Lamb waves propagating in an incompressible elastic plate.

In this paper, the effect of a large pre-stress on the propagation of small amplitude Lamb waves in an incompressible elastic plate is investigated. Using the theory of incremental elasticity, the dispersion equations, which give the phase velocity of the symmetric and anti-symmetric wave modes as a function of the wavenumber, plate thickness, and pre-stress state, are derived for a general strain energy function. By considering the fourth-order strain energy function of incompressible isotropic elasticity, the correction to the phase velocity due to the pre-stress is obtained implicitly to the second order in the pre-strain/stress, and depends on the second, third, and fourth-order elastic constants. Numerical results are presented to show the dependence of the phase velocity of the Lamb wave modes upon the applied stress. These are compared to the first-order correction, and agree well with the limiting and asymptotic values obtained previously. It is envisaged that the present results may well find important practical applications in various guided wave based ultrasonic techniques utilising gels and rubber-like materials.

Ligand-mediated adhesive mechanics of two static, deformed spheres.

A self-consistent model is developed to investigate attachment/detachment kinetics of two static, deformable microspheres with irregular surface and coated with flexible binding ligands. The model highlights how the microscale binding kinetics of these ligands as well as the attractive/repulsive potential of the charged surface affects the macroscale static deformed configuration of the spheres. It is shown that in the limit of smooth, neutrally charged surface (i.e., the dimensionless inverse Debye length, [Formula: see text]), interacting via elastic binders (i.e., the dimensionless stiffness coefficient, [Formula: see text]) the adhesion mechanics approaches the regime of application of the JKR theory, and in this particular limit, the contact radius, Rc, scales with the particle radius, R, according to the scaling law, [Formula: see text]. We show that static, deformed, highly charged, ligand-coated surface of micro-spheres exhibit strong adhesion. Normal stress distribution within the contact area adjusts with the binder stiffness coefficient, from a maximum at the center to a maximum at the periphery of the region. Although reported in some in vitro experiments involving particle adhesion, until now a physical interpretation for this variation of the stress distribution for deformable, charged, ligand-coated microspheres is missing. Surface roughness results in a diminished adhesion with a distinct reduction in the pull-off force, larger separation gap, weaker normal stress and limited area of adhesion. These results are in agreement with the published experimental findings.

Investigation of fatigue crack closure effect on the evaluation of edge cracks with the fundamental mode of edge waves.

Fatigue cracks often initiate and propagate from edges of structural components. Detection and evaluation of edge cracks could be very challenging, specifically, due to the crack closure phenomenon, which makes fatigue cracks to be partially closed when the applied loading is removed; this usually corresponds to maintenance and NDE inspection conditions. Despite that fatigue crack closure is well investigated, past experimental and theoretical studies related to guided wave-based NDEs largely ignored this phenomenon. In this article, the fundamental symmetric mode of edge waves (ES0) is used to evaluate crack closure effects on the evaluation of fatigue cracks. The experimental studies have demonstrated that the reflected and transmitted signals at different frequencies correlate very well with the length of the open region of fatigue cracks. However, an accurate evaluation of the total crack length can only be conducted under an applied loading, which fully separates the crack faces. Finally, a new FE model has been proposed to simulate the fatigue crack closure and its effects on propagation of ultrasonic bulk and guided waves. The outcomes of FE modelling and experimental study were found in a good agreement.

Fatigue Crack Growth Rates and Crack Tip Opening Loads in CT Specimens Made of SDSS and Manufactured Using WAAM.

Additive manufacturing offers greater flexibility in the design and fabrication of structural components with complex shapes. However, the use of additively manufactured parts for load-bearing structural applications, specifically involving cyclic loading, requires a thorough investigation of material fatigue properties. These properties can be affected by many factors, including residual stresses and crack tip shielding mechanisms, which can be very different from those of conventionally manufactured materials. This research focuses on super duplex stainless steels (SDSSs) fabricated with wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) and investigates their fatigue crack growth rates and the net effect of crack tip shielding mechanisms. Using the compliance-based method, we measured crack tip opening loads in compact tension (CT) specimens with cracks propagating longitudinally and transversely to the WAAM deposition direction. It was found that fatigue crack growth rates were very similar in both directions when correlated by the effective stress intensity factor range. However, the differences in crack tip opening loads explain a quite significant influence of the deposition direction on the fatigue life.

Numerical and experimental investigations on quasi-static component generation of longitudinal wave propagation in isotropic pipes.

In this paper, the quasi-static component (QSC) generation of longitudinal waves propagating in an isotropic pipe is investigated numerically and experimentally. The three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) simulations are first carried out to gain physical insights into the characteristics of QSC generation from longitudinal wave travelling in an isotropic pipe with weak material nonlinearity. By applying the axial displacement excitation in the FE model, L(0, 1) mode and L(0, 2) mode are excited simultaneously. Then, the generated QSC pulses are extracted using the phase reversal approach for analysis. It is found that the QSC pulses generated by L(0, 2) mode and L(0, 1) mode are L(0, 1) mode. Meanwhile, the shapes of QSC pulses at different locations are extracted and compared. In this study, a data pre-processing method is proposed to handle numerically calculated and subsequent experimentally measured displacement signals, and a nonlinear acoustic parameter is defined to evaluate the incipient damages. After that, an experiment is conducted to measure the QSCs induced by the propagation of longitudinal waves in an aluminum pipe. The experimental results indicate that the propagation of longitudinal waves in the aluminum pipe can induce the QSCs. Different levels of corrosion are created on the surface of the aluminum pipe and are assessed by the generated QSCs. The results show that the nonlinear acoustic parameter has a monotonically increasing trend with the growing severity of corrosion. The QSCs generated by longitudinal wave can be used to detect and evaluate the early-stage surface corrosion in the aluminum pipe.

Fatigue crack detection in edges of thin-walled structures with corners using the fundamental mode of edge waves.

Non-destructive detection and evaluation of fatigue cracks is critical to maintain safety and effective operation of high-value assets working under cyclic loading. However, this can be difficult in the case of the corners of the structural elements, especially at inaccessible locations. In this article, the propagation of the fundamental symmetric mode of edge wave (ES0) along structural features such as sharp and rounded corners are investigated using experimental and numerical methods. The ultimate aim of this study is to demonstrate that the ES0 is a promising for defect detection in geometries with corners. The outcomes of this study show that ES0 wave is able to propagate through sharp and rounded corners and provides a way to inspect difficult-to-reach locations. Further, the numerical simulations indicate that the radius-to-wavelength ratio above 3 has no significant impact on the wave amplitude when the ES0 propagates through the rounded corner. The results also demonstrate that the presence of fatigue crack leads to generation of the second harmonic of the ES0 wave mode, and this phenomenon can be utilised in the development of fatigue crack detection and characterization procedures.

Fluid-structure interaction study for biomechanics and risk factors in Stanford type A aortic dissection.

Aortic dissection is a life-threatening condition with a rising prevalence in the elderly population, possibly as a consequence of the increasing population life expectancy. Untreated aortic dissection can lead to myocardial infarction, aortic branch malperfusion or occlusion, rupture, aneurysm formation and death. This study aims to assess the potential of a biomechanical model in predicting the risks of a non-dilated thoracic aorta with Stanford type A dissection. To achieve this, a fully coupled fluid-structure interaction model was developed under realistic blood flow conditions. This model of the aorta was developed by considering three-dimensional artery geometry, multiple artery layers, hyperelastic artery wall, in vivo-based physiological time-varying blood velocity profiles, and non-Newtonian blood behaviours. The results demonstrate that in a thoracic aorta with Stanford type A dissection, the wall shear stress (WSS) is significantly low in the ascending aorta and false lumen, leading to potential aortic dilation and thrombus formation. The results also reveal that the WSS is highly related to blood flow patterns. The aortic arch region near the brachiocephalic and left common carotid artery is prone to rupture, showing a good agreement with the clinical reports. The results have been translated into their potential clinical relevance by revealing the role of the stress state, WSS and flow characteristics as the main parameters affecting lesion progression, including rupture and aneurysm. The developed model can be tailored for patient-specific studies and utilised as a predictive tool to estimate aneurysm growth and initiation of wall rupture inside the human thoracic aorta.

A review on the biomechanical behaviour of the aorta.

Large aortic aneurysm and acute and chronic aortic dissection are pathologies of the aorta requiring surgery. Recent advances in medical intervention have improved patient outcomes; however, a clear understanding of the mechanisms leading to aortic failure and, hence, a better understanding of failure risk, is still missing. Biomechanical analysis of the aorta could provide insights into the development and progression of aortic abnormalities, giving clinicians a powerful tool in risk stratification. The complexity of the aortic system presents significant challenges for a biomechanical study and requires various approaches to analyse the aorta. To address this, here we present a holistic review of the biomechanical studies of the aorta by categorising articles into four broad approaches, namely theoretical, in vivo, experimental and combined investigations. Experimental studies that focus on identifying mechanical properties of the aortic tissue are also included. By reviewing the literature and discussing drawbacks, limitations and future challenges in each area, we hope to present a more complete picture of the state-of-the-art of aortic biomechanics to stimulate research on critical topics. Combining experimental modalities and computational approaches could lead to more comprehensive results in risk prediction for the aortic system.

Low-frequency Lamb wave mixing for fatigue damage evaluation using phase-reversal approach.

Fatigue damage is difficult to detect and evaluate non-destructively, specifically at its early stages (before the macro-crack formation). In this study, fatigue damage is evaluated based on the growth rate of the combinational harmonics generated by mixing of two fundamental symmetric mode (S0) of Lamb waves in the low frequency range. The incorporation of the phase reversal approach to the wave mixing method could potentially improve the evaluation of the combinational and second harmonics and avoid the influence of other undesirable harmonics. A series of parametric case studies are carried out using the three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) method to investigate the effects of the excitation frequencies and time delay of the incident waves in wave mixing on the transient response of a weakly-nonlinear material. The numerical results and experimental results show that the sum combinational harmonic and second harmonics are sensitive to weak material nonlinearities. Further experiments on damaged samples by cyclic loading demonstrate that the sum combinational harmonic has much better sensitivity to the progressive fatigue damage than the the second harmonics. In general, the outcomes of this study indicate that the damage evaluation of early stage fatigue damage is feasible and effective with the wave mixing method using the S0 waves generated at low frequency, and the phase-reversal approach improves considerably the quality of experimental results in the fatigue damage evaluation.

The fundamental ultrasonic edge wave mode: Propagation characteristics and potential for distant damage detection.

Engineering structures are often composed of thin elements containing features such as free edges, welds, ribs, and holes, which makes distant safety inspections based on guided waves difficult due to wave scattering. However, these features can themselves generate so-called 'feature-guided' waves, which can potentially be utilised for damage detection. One such example are flexural wedge waves, which have been investigated extensively both theoretically and experimentally in the past. Another example is edge waves. These waves, which are a natural analogue of Rayleigh waves propagating in a finite thickness plate, have received relatively little attention, specifically with respect to their possible use in distant damage inspections and Structural Health Monitoring systems. The current paper is aimed to address this gap, and it is focused on the investigation of the fundamental mode of edge waves (ES0), which is the most promising for practical applications. The features of the transient ES0 mode are investigated experimentally and numerically, and compared with previous theoretical studies. It was demonstrated that the ES0 mode can be effectively excited with the wedge excitation method, and distant damage detection with this wave mode at low frequency-thickness values (FTV < 5) is readily achievable. In particular, in a laboratory environment the ES0 mode propagated several meters with almost no decay. However, at higher frequency-thickness values, a wave amplitude modulation, significant energy decay and strong coupling between the ES0 and S0 wave modes were observed. These phenomena may restrict the defect resolution as well as the range of damage inspections based on the fundamental edge wave mode.

Comparison of an analytical expression of resin composite curing stresses with in vitro observations of marginal cracking.

PURPOSE: To observe the marginal failure at the enamel-resin composite interface upon curing, and utilize a recently developed analytical model for curing stresses to relate to the extent of interfacial failure. METHODS: Occlusal cavity preparations were restored with Heliomolar, Filtek Z100 or UltraSeal XT Plus resin composites. Teeth were restored with either bulk or incremental placement. The control group was not restored. Teeth were placed in an acrylic ring and embedded in cold mounting epoxy resin and the crown sectioned so that the tooth/restoration interface and cavosurface margin could be visualized with an optical microscope. A recently developed simplified analytical approach was utilized to evaluate the composite-enamel interface tensile stresses for these materials theoretically and thereby the fracture susceptibility of the resin-enamel interface during polymerization. RESULTS: White lines, enamel cracks and interfacial failure of the bond were evident for all three materials evaluated (P < 0.01). Gaps at the enamel-composite interface measured 1-10 microm and were more evident for Ultra Seal XT Plus and Z100 than Heliomolar. Conversely, cracking of the enamel adjacent to the interface was more evident for Heliomolar. Statistical analysis showed that enamel cracking and interfacial failure was significant for all groups (P < 0.01). An inverse relationship was noted between enamel cracking and interfacial failure (P < 0.05). The predictions for the extent of cracking from the mathematical modeling match the experimental data and prior studies.

On the determination of the third-order elastic constants of homogeneous isotropic materials utilising Rayleigh waves.

This paper presents a new method for determining the third-order elastic constants (TOECs) of a homogeneous isotropic material utilising the acoustoelastic effect associated with Rayleigh waves. It is demonstrated that the accuracy of the evaluation of TOECs can be substantially improved by supplementing the classical equations of acoustoelasticity, which describe the effect of applied stress on bulk wave speeds, with the nonlinear characteristic equation for the propagation of Rayleigh waves in pre-stressed media. The developed method can be readily implemented for Structural Health Monitoring applications; for example, the measurement of applied stresses based on the acoustoelastic effect, or the monitoring of near-surface microstructural damage based on the change in magnitude of the TOECs.

On the design of dental resin-based composites: a micromechanical approach.

Adhesive resin-based restorative materials have the potential to considerably strengthen teeth and offer more economically viable alternatives to traditional materials such as gold, amalgam or ceramics. Other advantages are direct and immediate placement and the elimination of the use of mercury. However, polymerization shrinkage during curing of an adhesive restoration and mismatch in mechanical properties can lead to the initiation and development of interfacial defects. These defects could have a detrimental effect on the longevity of the restored tooth. The current study is focused on some design issues of resin-based composites affecting the longevity of the tooth-restoration interface. The theoretical approach is based on self-consistent micromechanical modelling that takes into account the effect of the material properties, volume concentration of the dispersed particle phase as well as the shape of these particles on the overall thermomechanical properties of the composite. Results obtained for resin-based composites reinforced with spherical, disc and short fibre particles highlight the advantages of disc shaped and short fibre particles.

Effect of material properties of composite restoration on the strength of the restoration-dentine interface due to polymerization shrinkage, thermal and occlusal loading.

The purpose of this investigation was to adopt an analytical approach to analyse stresses at the restoration-dentine interface caused by polymerization shrinkage, occlusal and thermal loading with the primary focus on evaluating the effect of the material properties of the composite restoration on the strength of the interface. Some essential simplifications were employed to derive an explicit analytical solution. The results confirm previous findings that interfacial stresses due to polymerization shrinkage are increased with the higher modulus of elasticity of the restoration, while Poisson's ratio of the restorative material has a very small influence on these stresses. Occlusal loading resulted in much lower interfacial stresses when compared to shrinkage and thermal loads. The obtained results were in a good agreement with other numerical and clinical studies. From the modelling analysis it was found that the majority of commercially available composite restorative materials are expected to create significant interfacial stresses when subjected to cold temperatures. In addition, it was shown that there is a considerable potential for interfacial stresses to be minimised by an appropriate selection of thermo-mechanical properties of the restorative material especially with the new finding on the negative temperature variation effect.

Effect of material properties on stresses at the restoration-dentin interface of composite restorations during polymerization.

BACKGROUND: Numerous analyses for the shrinkage stress in the adhesive resin-based composite restorations mostly rely on numerical models. However, various finite element studies have inherent difficulties and inconsistencies associated with the use of different anatomy (tooth and restoration), boundary conditions (root and interfaces) and shrinkage models. As a consequence many numerical results remain inconclusive. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this paper is to develop a simplified analytical model of shrinkage stress and investigate effects of material properties of the restorative material, size of the restoration and volumetric shrinkage on the magnitude of the shrinkage stress in the vicinity of the dental-restoration interface. METHODS: The model is based on the following assumptions. The geometry is axisymmetric; all materials are linear-elastic; and the polymerization of the restoration material results in uniform volume shrinkage. An application of compatibility conditions leads to the system of five linear algebraic equations to five unknown variables, which can be easily resolved using standard techniques. RESULTS: An explicit equation for the tensile stress at the interface was obtained. It was shown that higher Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and volume shrinkage of the restorative material normally lead to larger tensile stress at the interface, which increases the risk of debonding. The results obtained based in this work, in general, are in a good agreement with published results of finite element studies. SIGNIFICANCE: The model allows comparison of different adhesive restorative materials with respect to the fracture risk of the interface induced by the development of the shrinkage stress at the restoration-dentine interface during polymerization. The model can be used to validate more sophisticated computational models as well as to conduct various optimization studies and preliminary assessments of fracture risk.

On material choice and fracture susceptibility of restored teeth: an asymptotic stress analysis approach.

OBJECTIVE: The ultimate success or failure of a restored tooth is largely dependent on clinical management. Clinicians may choose from a number of restorative materials, different clinical techniques and cavity preparation procedures. The purpose of this study was to specifically examine aspects of the material choice holding other factors constant. METHODS: The current paper adopts a fundamental result in the linear theory of elasticity on the singular stress distribution in a bi-materials wedge to analyze the fracture susceptibility of different materials used for the restoration of a tooth. RESULTS: Comparable results are reported for amalgam, gold alloys and ceramic materials. It is shown that due to a wide variety of mechanical properties the application of resin-based composites could lead to improved or less fracture resistance of the restored tooth. SIGNIFICANCE: This variety in the mechanical properties for resin-based composites could be partially responsible for the contradictory evidences reported by different clinical studies. The present work contributes evidence from an analytical model to assist the restorative dentist in selection of an appropriate restorative material and guide the manufacturing companies on the preferred physical properties of newer designed materials.

Analysis of interfacial fracture in dental restorations.

OBJECTIVES: To provide a brief summary of the background theory of interfacial fracture mechanics and develop an analytical framework that identifies the critical factors for the analysis of the initiation and propagation of adhesion failure in composite restorations. METHODS: A conceptual framework utilizing interfacial fracture mechanics and Toya's solution for a partially delaminated circular inclusion in an elastic matrix, which can be applied (with caution) to approximate polymer curing induced cracking about composite resins for class 1 cavity restorations. RESULTS: The findings indicate that: (1) most traditional shear tests are not appropriate for the analysis of the interfacial failure initiation; (2) material properties of the restorative and tooth material have a strong influence on the energy realize rate; (3) there is a strong size effect; and (4) interfacial failure once initiated is characterized by unstable propagation along the interface almost completely encircling the composite. SIGNIFICANCE: The work is important for the analysis of the reliability of composite class I restorations and provides an adequate interpretation of recent adhesion debonding experimental results utilizing tubular geometry of specimens. The approach clearly identifies the critical parameters including; curing strain, material modulii, size and interfacial strain energy release rate for reliable development of advanced restorative materials.