Current concepts on epilepsy management in tuberous sclerosis complex.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant neurocutaneous disease affecting approximately 1 in 6,000 people, and represents one of the most common genetic causes of epilepsy. Epilepsy affects 90% of the patients and appears in the first 2 years of life in the majority of them. Early onset of epilepsy in the first 12 months of life is associated with high risk of cognitive decline and neuropsychiatric problems including autism. Prenatal or early infantile diagnosis of TSC, before the onset of epilepsy, provides a unique opportunity to monitor EEG before the onset of clinical seizures, thus enabling early intervention in the process of epileptogenesis. In this review, we discuss the current status of knowledge on epileptogenesis in TSC, and present recommendations of American and European experts in the field of epilepsy.

Spinal cord lesions in children and adolescents with multiple sclerosis - Magnetic resonance imaging.

PURPOSE: The purpose of our study was to determine the prevalence of spinal cord lesions revealed by magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in children and adolescents with clinically definite multiple sclerosis (MS). MATERIAL AND METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated the spinal cord magnetic resonance examinations in a group of MS patients consisting of 58 children (37 girls and 21 boys) aged from 7 to 17.8 years (mean 13.7 years). All children met the criteria of clinically definite MS and had typical MS lesions revealed in the brain imaging. RESULTS: Spinal cord lesions, regardless of localization, were identified in 36 (62%) patients. In 22 of 58 patients (38%) no lesions were observed. The plaques were found in the cervical spinal cord and the thoracic spinal cord in 30 out of 36 (86.1%) and in 31 out of 36 (88.6%) patients, respectively. Contrast enhancement was noticed in 10 out of 36 patients (27.7%) and was not correlated with the number of lesions present. We noticed a tendency to higher EDSS score in patients with lesions in more than 1 spinal cord region. Our study showed that spinal cord lesions are more frequently present in patients with complex neurological disability. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of spinal cord lesions in children and adolescents with MS is high. Therefore, spinal cord MRI should be included in diagnostic program of MS.

Dietary treatment of epilepsy: rebirth of an ancient treatment.

Since its introduction in 1921, the ketogenic diet has been in continuous use for children with difficult-to-control epilepsy. After decades of relative disuse, it is now both extremely popular and well studied, with approximately two-thirds of children demonstrating significant seizure reduction after 6 months. It is being used for less intractable seizures in children as well as recently adults. Modifications that help improve tolerability include the medium chain triglyceride diet, modified Atkins diet, and low glycemic index treatment. Major side effects include acidosis, increased cholesterol, kidney stones, gastroesophageal reflux, and growth disturbance. However, these side effects are usually treatable and nowadays often even preventable. Future non-epilepsy indications such as Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, autism, and brain tumors are under active investigation. This dietary treatment for epilepsy has undergone a rebirth. Its widespread use in Poland and Europe is a welcome additional treatment for those with drug-resistant epilepsy.

Early diagnosis of tuberous sclerosis complex: a race against time. How to make the diagnosis before seizures?

BACKGROUND: Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is a genetic disorder with an incidence of 1:6000 live births and associated with the development of benign tumors in several organs. It is also characterized by high rates of neurological and neuropsychiatric abnormalities, including epilepsy affecting 70-90% of patients and being one of the major risk factors of intellectual disability. The first seizures in TSC patients appear usually between the 4th and the 6th months of life. Recent studies have shown the beneficial role of preventative antiepileptic treatment in TSC patients, with the possibility for improvement of cognitive outcome. Moreover, European recommendations suggest early introduction of Vigabatrin if ictal discharges occur on EEG recordings, with or without clinical manifestation. The aim of this study was to define the most useful approach to make the diagnosis of TSC before seizure onset (before age 4th months), in order to start early EEG monitoring with possible preventative treatment intervention. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of children who were suspected of having TSC due to single or multiple cardiac tumors as the first sign of the disease. We analyzed the medical records in terms of conducted clinical tests and TSC signs, which were observed until the end of the 4th month of age. Subsequently, we described the different clinical scenarios and recommendations for early diagnosis. RESULTS: 82/100 children were diagnosed with TSC within the first 4 months of life. Apart from cardiac tumors, the most frequently observed early TSC signs were subependymal nodules (71/100, 71%), cortical dysplasia (66/100, 66%), and hypomelanotic macules (35/100, 35%). The most useful clinical studies for early TSC diagnosis were brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), skin examination and echocardiography. Genetic testing was performed in 49/100 of the patients, but the results were obtained within the first 4 months of life in only 3 children. CONCLUSIONS: Early diagnosis of TSC, before seizure onset, is feasible and it is becoming pivotal for epilepsy management and improvement of cognitive outcome. Early TSC diagnosis is mostly based on clinical signs. Brain MRI, echocardiography, skin examination and genetic testing should be performed early in every patient suspected of having TSC.

Role of mTOR inhibitors in epilepsy treatment.

In spite of the fact, that subsequent new antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are being introduced into clinical practice, the percentage of drug-resistant epilepsy cases remains stable. Although a substantial progress has been made in safety profile of antiepileptic drugs, currently available substances have not been unambiguously proven to display disease-modifying effect in epilepsy and their mechanisms of action influence mainly on the end-stage phase of epileptogenesis, namely seizures. Prevention of epileptogenesis requires new generation of drugs modulating molecular pathways engaged in epileptogenesis processes. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is involved in highly epileptogenic conditions, such as tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) and represents a reasonable target for antiepileptogenic interventions. In animal models of TSC mTOR inhibitors turned out to prevent the development of epilepsy and reduce underlying brain abnormalities. Accumulating evidence from animal studies suggest the role of mTOR pathway in acquired forms of epilepsy. Preliminary clinical studies with patients affected by TSC demonstrated seizure reduction and potential disease-modifying effect of mTOR inhibitors. Further studies will determine the place for mTOR inhibitors in the treatment of patients with TSC as well as its potential antiepileptogenic effect in other types of genetic and acquired epilepsies. This review presents current knowledge of mTOR pathway physiology and pathology in the brain, as well as potential clinical use of its inhibitors.