Large-scale analysis of Macaca fascicularis transcripts and inference of genetic divergence between M. fascicularis and M. mulatta.

BACKGROUND: Cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) are widely used as experimental animals in biomedical research and are closely related to other laboratory macaques, such as rhesus macaques (M. mulatta). We isolated 85,721 clones and determined 9407 full-insert sequences from cynomolgus monkey brain, testis, and liver. These sequences were annotated based on homology to human genes and stored in a database, QFbase http://genebank.nibio.go.jp/qfbase/. RESULTS: We found that 1024 transcripts did not represent any public human cDNA sequence and examined their expression using M. fascicularis oligonucleotide microarrays. Significant expression was detected for 544 (51%) of the unidentified transcripts. Moreover, we identified 226 genes containing exon alterations in the untranslated regions of the macaque transcripts, despite the highly conserved structure of the coding regions. Considering the polymorphism in the common ancestor of cynomolgus and rhesus macaques and the rate of PCR errors, the divergence time between the two species was estimated to be around 0.9 million years ago. CONCLUSION: Transcript data from Old World monkeys provide a means not only to determine the evolutionary difference between human and non-human primates but also to unveil hidden transcripts in the human genome. Increasing the genomic resources and information of macaque monkeys will greatly contribute to the development of evolutionary biology and biomedical sciences.

Extensive expansion and diversification of the chemokine gene family in zebrafish: identification of a novel chemokine subfamily CX.

BACKGROUND: The chemokine family plays important roles in cell migration and activation. In humans, at least 44 members are known. Based on the arrangement of the four conserved cysteine residues, chemokines are now classified into four subfamilies, CXC, CC, XC and CX3C. Given that zebrafish is an important experimental model and teleost fishes constitute an evolutionarily diverse group that forms half the vertebrate species, it would be useful to compare the zebrafish chemokine system with those of mammals. Prior to this study, however, only incomplete lists of the zebrafish chemokine genes were reported. RESULTS: We systematically searched chemokine genes in the zebrafish genome and EST databases, and identified more than 100 chemokine genes. These genes were CXC, CC and XC subfamily members, while no CX3C gene was identified. We also searched chemokine genes in pufferfish fugu and Tetraodon, and found only 18 chemokine genes in each species. The majority of the identified chemokine genes are unique to zebrafish or teleost fishes. However, several groups of chemokines are moderately similar to human chemokines, and some chemokines are orthologous to human homeostatic chemokines CXCL12 and CXCL14. Zebrafish also possesses a novel species-specific subfamily consisting of five members, which we term the CX subfamily. The CX chemokines lack one of the two N-terminus conserved cysteine residues but retain the third and the fourth ones. (Note that the XC subfamily only retains the second and fourth of the signature cysteines residues.) Phylogenetic analysis and genome organization of the chemokine genes showed that successive tandem duplication events generated the CX genes from the CC subfamily. Recombinant CXL-chr24a, one of the CX subfamily members on chromosome 24, showed marked chemotactic activity for carp leukocytes. The mRNA was expressed mainly during a certain period of the embryogenesis, suggesting its role in the zebrafish development. CONCLUSION: The phylogenic and genomic organization analyses suggest that a substantial number of chemokine genes in zebrafish were generated by zebrafish-specific tandem duplication events. During such duplications, a novel chemokine subfamily termed CX was generated in zebrafish. Only two human chemokines CXCL12 and CXCL14 have the orthologous chemokines in zebrafish. The diversification observed in the numbers and sequences of chemokines in the fish may reflect the adaptation of the individual species to their respective biological environment.

Aberrant termination of reproduction-related TMEM30C transcripts in the hominoids.

Finding genetic novelties that may contribute to human-specific physiology and diseases is a key issue of current biomedical studies. TMEM30C is a gene containing two transmembrane (TM) domains and homologous to the yeast CDC50 family, which is related to polarized cell division. It is conserved among mammals along with two other paralogs, TMEM30A and TMEM30B. We found that TMEM30C is expressed specifically in the testis of mammals, in contrast to the relatively wide expression distributions of the other paralogs. While macaques expressed two alternative splicing isoforms which include one or two TM domains, humans and chimpanzees predominantly expressed truncated transcripts because of the mutations in the splicing and/or poly(A) signal sites. The major transcript in humans harbored non-stop ORF (open reading frame) while the chimpanzee counterpart encoded a protein with one TM domain. The difference was due to the 1-bp indel upstream of the poly(A) signal site. In addition, both the hominoids expressed minor transcripts encoding short proteins with one TM domain. Phylogenetic analysis has showed the acceleration of amino acid substitution after the human and chimpanzee divergence, which may have been caused by a recent relaxation in functional constraints or positive selection on TMEM30C. Elucidating the precise reproductive function of TMEM30C in mammals will be important to the foundation of divergence in higher primates at a molecular level.

Mapping of chimpanzee full-length cDNAs onto the human genome unveils large potential divergence of the transcriptome.

The genetic basis of the phenotypic difference between human and chimpanzee is one of the most actively pursued issues in current genomics. Although the genomic divergence between the two species has been described, the transcriptomic divergence has not been well documented. Thus, we newly sequenced and analyzed chimpanzee full-length cDNAs (FLcDNAs) representing 87 protein-coding genes. The number of nucleotide substitutions and sites of insertions/deletions (indels) was counted as a measure of sequence divergence between the chimpanzee FLcDNAs and the human genome onto which the FLcDNAs were mapped. Difference in transcription start/termination sites (TSSs/TTSs) and alternative splicing (AS) exons was also counted as a measure of structural divergence between the chimpanzee FLcDNAs and their orthologous human transcripts (NCBI RefSeq). As a result, we found that transposons (Alu) and repetitive segments caused large indels, which strikingly increased the average amount of sequence divergence up to more than 2% in the 3'-UTRs. Moreover, 20 out of the 87 transcripts contained more than 10% structural divergence in length. In particular, two-thirds of the structural divergence was found in the 3'-UTRs, and variable transcription start sites were conspicuous in the 5'-UTRs. As both transcriptional and translational efficiency were supposed to be related to 5'- and 3'-UTR sequences, these results lead to the idea that the difference in gene regulation can be a major cause of the difference in phenotype between human and chimpanzee.

Identification of a novel CXCL1-like chemokine gene in macaques and its inactivation in hominids.

Chemokines are a rapidly evolving cytokine gene family. Because of various genome rearrangements after divergence of primates and rodents, humans and mice have different sets of chemokine genes, with humans having members outnumbering those of mice. Here, we report the occurrence of lineage-specific chemokine gene generation or inactivation events within primates. By using human chemokine sequences as queries, we isolated a novel cynomolgus macaque CXC chemokine cDNA. The encoded chemokine, termed CXCL1L (from CXCL1-like) showed the highest similarity to human CXCL1. A highly homologous gene was also found in the rhesus macaque genome. By comparing the genome organization of the major CXC chemokine clusters among the primates, we found that one copy of the duplicated CXCL1 genes turned into a pseudogene in the hominids, whereas the gene in macaques has been maintained as a functionally active CXCL1L. In addition, cynomolgus macaque was found to contain an additional CXC chemokine highly homologous to CXCL3, termed CXCL3L (from CXCL3-like). These results demonstrate the birth-and-death process of a new gene in association with gene duplication within the primates.

Cynomolgus monkey testicular cDNAs for discovery of novel human genes in the human genome sequence.

BACKGROUND: In order to contribute to the establishment of a complete map of transcribed regions of the human genome, we constructed a testicular cDNA library for the cynomolgus monkey, and attempted to find novel transcripts for identification of their human homologues. RESULT: The full-insert sequences of 512 cDNA clones were determined. Ultimately we found 302 non-redundant cDNAs carrying open reading frames of 300 bp-length or longer. Among them, 89 cDNAs were found not to be annotated previously in the Ensembl human database. After searching against the Ensembl mouse database, we also found 69 putative coding sequences have no homologous cDNAs in the annotated human and mouse genome sequences in Ensembl. We subsequently designed a DNA microarray including 396 non-redundant cDNAs (with and without open reading frames) to examine the expression of the full-sequenced genes. With the testicular probe and a mixture of probes of 10 other tissues, 316 of 332 effective spots showed intense hybridized signals and 75 cDNAs were shown to be expressed very highly in the cynomolgus monkey testis, but not ubiquitously. CONCLUSIONS: In this report, we determined 302 full-insert sequences of cynomolgus monkey cDNAs with enough length of open reading frames to discover novel transcripts as human homologues. Among 302 cDNA sequences, human homologues of 89 cDNAs have not been predicted in the annotated human genome sequence in the Ensembl. Additionally, we identified 75 dominantly expressed genes in testis among the full-sequenced clones by using a DNA microarray. Our cDNA clones and analytical results will be valuable resources for future functional genomic studies.

Comparative DNA sequence analysis of mouse and human CC chemokine gene clusters.

The CC chemokines are a closely related subfamily of the chemokine superfamily. Most of the CC chemokine genes form a cluster on chromosome 11 in mice and chromosome 17 in humans. To date, 11 and 16 functional genes have been localized within the mouse and human clusters, respectively. Notably, some of the genes within these clusters appear to have no counterparts between the two species, and the orthologous relationships of some of the genes are difficult to establish solely on the basis of amino acid similarity. In this study, we have taken a comparative genomic approach to reveal some of the features that may be involved in the dynamic evolution of these gene clusters. We sequenced a 122-kb region containing five chemokine genes of the mouse CC cluster. This mouse sequence was combined with those determined by the Mouse Genome Sequencing Project, and the entire sequence of the mouse CC cluster was compared with that of the corresponding cluster in the human genome by percent identity plot and dot-plot analyses. Although no additional chemokine genes have been found in these clusters, our analysis has revealed that numerous gene rearrangements have occurred even after the diversification of rodents and primates, resulting in several species-specific chemokine genes and pseudogenes. In addition, phylogenetic analysis and comparison of the genomic sequences unambiguously identified the orthologous relationships of some of the chemokine genes in the mouse and human CC gene clusters.

Whole-genome sequencing of liver cancers identifies etiological influences on mutation patterns and recurrent mutations in chromatin regulators.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. We sequenced and analyzed the whole genomes of 27 HCCs, 25 of which were associated with hepatitis B or C virus infections, including two sets of multicentric tumors. Although no common somatic mutations were identified in the multicentric tumor pairs, their whole-genome substitution patterns were similar, suggesting that these tumors developed from independent mutations, although their shared etiological backgrounds may have strongly influenced their somatic mutation patterns. Statistical and functional analyses yielded a list of recurrently mutated genes. Multiple chromatin regulators, including ARID1A, ARID1B, ARID2, MLL and MLL3, were mutated in ∼50% of the tumors. Hepatitis B virus genome integration in the TERT locus was frequently observed in a high clonal proportion. Our whole-genome sequencing analysis of HCCs identified the influence of etiological background on somatic mutation patterns and subsequent carcinogenesis, as well as recurrent mutations in chromatin regulators in HCCs.

High-resolution characterization of a hepatocellular carcinoma genome.

Hepatocellular carcinoma, one of the most common virus-associated cancers, is the third most frequent cause of cancer-related death worldwide. By massively parallel sequencing of a primary hepatitis C virus-positive hepatocellular carcinoma (36× coverage) and matched lymphocytes (>28× coverage) from the same individual, we identified more than 11,000 somatic substitutions of the tumor genome that showed predominance of T>C/A>G transition and a decrease of the T>C substitution on the transcribed strand, suggesting preferential DNA repair. Gene annotation enrichment analysis of 63 validated non-synonymous substitutions revealed enrichment of phosphoproteins. We further validated 22 chromosomal rearrangements, generating four fusion transcripts that had altered transcriptional regulation (BCORL1-ELF4) or promoter activity. Whole-exome sequencing at a higher sequence depth (>76× coverage) revealed a TSC1 nonsense substitution in a subpopulation of the tumor cells. This first high-resolution characterization of a virus-associated cancer genome identified previously uncharacterized mutation patterns, intra-chromosomal rearrangements and fusion genes, as well as genetic heterogeneity within the tumor.

Casein kinase I{gamma}2 down-regulates trafficking of ceramide in the synthesis of sphingomyelin.

Intracellullar trafficking of lipids is fundamental to membrane biogenesis. For the synthesis of sphingomyelin, ceramide is transported from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus by the ceramide transfer protein CERT. CERT is phosphorylated by protein kinase D at S132 and subsequently multiple times in a serine-repeat motif, resulting in its inactivation. However, the kinase involved in the multiple phosphorylation remains unclear. Here, we identify the gamma2 isoform of casein kinase I (CKIgamma2) as a kinase whose overexpression confers sphingomyelin-directed toxin-resistance to Chinese hamster ovary cells. In a transformant stably expressing CKIgamma2, CERT was hyperphosphorylated, and the intracellular trafficking of ceramide was retarded, thereby reducing de novo sphingomyelin synthesis. The reduction in the synthesis of sphingomyelin caused by CKIgamma2 was reversed by the expression of CERT mutants that are not hyperphosphorylated. Furthermore, CKIgamma2 directly phosphorylated CERT in vitro. Among three gamma isoforms, only knockdown of gamma2 isoform caused drastic changes in the ratio of hypo- to hyperphosphorylated form of CERT in HeLa cells. These results indicate that CKIgamma2 hyperphosphorylates the serine-repeat motif of CERT, thereby inactivating CERT and down-regulating the synthesis of sphingomyelin.

Collection of Macaca fascicularis cDNAs derived from bone marrow, kidney, liver, pancreas, spleen, and thymus.

BACKGROUND: Consolidating transcriptome data of non-human primates is essential to annotate primate genome sequences, and will facilitate research using non-human primates in the genomic era. Macaca fascicularis is a macaque monkey that is commonly used for biomedical and ecological research. FINDINGS: We constructed cDNA libraries of Macaca fascicularis, derived from tissues obtained from bone marrow, liver, pancreas, spleen, and thymus of a young male, and kidney of a young female. In total, 5'-end sequences of 56,856 clones were determined. Including the previously established cDNA libraries from brain and testis, we have isolated 112,587 cDNAs of Macaca fascicularis, which correspond to 56% of the curated human reference genes. CONCLUSION: These sequences were deposited in the public sequence database as well as in-house macaque genome database http://genebank.nibio.go.jp/qfbase/. These data will become valuable resources for identifying functional parts of the genome of macaque monkeys in future studies.

Substitution rate and structural divergence of 5'UTR evolution: comparative analysis between human and cynomolgus monkey cDNAs.

The substitution rate and structural divergence in the 5'-untranslated region (UTR) were investigated by using human and cynomolgus monkey cDNA sequences. Due to the weaker functional constraint in the UTR than in the coding sequence, the divergence between humans and macaques would provide a good estimate of the nucleotide substitution rate and structural divergence in the 5'UTR. We found that the substitution rate in the 5'UTR (K5UTR) averaged approximately 10%-20% lower than the synonymous substitution rate (Ks). However, both the K5UTR and nonsynonymous substitution rate (Ka) were significantly higher in the testicular cDNAs than in the brain cDNAs, whereas the Ks did not differ. Further, an in silico analysis revealed that 27% (169/622) of macaque testicular cDNAs had an altered exon-intron structure in the 5'UTR compared with the human cDNAs. The fraction of cDNAs with an exon alteration was significantly higher in the testicular cDNAs than in the brain cDNAs. We confirmed by using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction that about one-third (6/16) of in silico "macaque-specific" exons in the 5'UTR were actually macaque specific in the testis. The results imply that positive selection increased K5UTR and structural alteration rate of a certain fraction of genes as well as Ka. We found that both positive and negative selection can act on the 5'UTR sequences.

Search for genes positively selected during primate evolution by 5'-end-sequence screening of cynomolgus monkey cDNAs.

It is possible to assess positive selection by using the ratio of K(a) (nonsynonymous substitutions per plausible nonsynonymous sites) to K(s) (synonymous substitutions per plausible synonymous sites). We have searched candidate genes positively selected during primate evolution by using 5'-end sequences of 21,302 clones derived from cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) brain cDNA libraries. Among these candidates, 10 genes that had not been shown by previous studies to undergo positive selection exhibited a K(a)/K(s) ratio > 1. Of the 10 candidate genes we found, 5 were included in the mitochondrial respiratory enzyme complexes, suggesting that these nuclear-encoded genes coevolved with mitochondrial-encoded genes, which have high mutation rates. The products of other candidate genes consisted of a cell-surface protein, a member of the lipocalin family, a nuclear transcription factor, and hypothetical proteins.

Prediction of unidentified human genes on the basis of sequence similarity to novel cDNAs from cynomolgus monkey brain.

BACKGROUND: The complete assignment of the protein-coding regions of the human genome is a major challenge for genome biology today. We have already isolated many hitherto unknown full-length cDNAs as orthologs of unidentified human genes from cDNA libraries of the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis) brain (parietal lobe and cerebellum). In this study, we used cDNA libraries of three other parts of the brain (frontal lobe, temporal lobe and medulla oblongata) to isolate novel full-length cDNAs. RESULTS: The entire sequences of novel cDNAs of the cynomolgus monkey were determined, and the orthologous human cDNA sequences were predicted from the human genome sequence. We predicted 29 novel human genes with putative coding regions sharing an open reading frame with the cynomolgus monkey, and we confirmed the expression of 21 pairs of genes by the reverse transcription-coupled polymerase chain reaction method. The hypothetical proteins were also functionally annotated by computer analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The 29 new genes had not been discovered in recent explorations for novel genes in humans, and the ab initio method failed to predict all exons. Thus, monkey cDNA is a valuable resource for the preparation of a complete human gene catalog, which will facilitate post-genomic studies.