Retransitioning: The experiences of youth who socially transition genders more than once.

Background: Retransitions in youth are critical to understand, as they are an experience about which little is known and about which families and clinicians worry. Aims: This study aims to qualitatively describe the experiences of youth who made binary social transitions (came to live as the binary gender different from the one assigned at birth) in childhood by the age of 12, and who later socially transitioned genders again (here, called "retransitioning"). Methods: Out of 317 participants in an ongoing longitudinal study of (initially) binary transgender youth, 23 participants had retransitioned at least once and were therefore eligible for this study. Of those youth, 8 were cisgender at the time of data collection, 11 were nonbinary, and 4 were binary transgender youth (after having retransitioned to nonbinary identities for a period). Fifteen youth and/or their parent(s) participated in semi-structured interviews (MYouthA ge = 11.3 years; 9 non-Hispanic White; 3 Hispanic White; 3 Multiracial; 10 assigned male; 5 assigned female). Interviews gauged antecedents of transitions, others' reactions to transitions, and participants' general reflections. Responses were coded and thematically analyzed. Results: Participants described various paths to retransitions, including that some youth identified differently over time, and that some youth learned about a new identity (e.g., nonbinary) that fit them better. Social environments' responses to retransitions varied but were often neutral or positive. No participants spontaneously expressed regret over initial transitions. Conclusions: These findings largely do not support common concerns about retransitions. In supportive environments, gender diverse youth can retransition without experiencing rejection, distress, and regret.

The Impact of Peer and Family Functioning on Transgender and Gender-Diverse Children's Mental Health.

Although high levels of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology have been documented among transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) youth, contextual factors influencing the development of psychopathology among TGD children are relatively understudied. The current study tested the interaction between two relational factors, children's caregiver-reported peer relations and family functioning, on TGD children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. The sample consisted of 49 primary caregivers of TGD children, who were age 6-12 at baseline. A cross-sectional path analysis was run to test the relations between peer relations, family functioning, and their interaction on internalizing and externalizing symptoms. A longitudinal path analysis was run to test the relations between variables over time. In the cross-sectional model, among families with adequate family functioning, peer problems were associated with greater internalizing symptoms. Among families that were functioning poorly, there was not a significant relationship between peer problems and internalizing symptoms. Further, among children who did not experience peer problems, poorer family functioning was associated with greater internalizing symptoms. Peer problems, but not family functioning or the interaction term, was associated with externalizing symptoms. Longitudinal analyses did not support the hypothesis of an interaction between peer relations and family functioning. The current research indicated that poor peer relations and poor family functioning each confer risk for internalizing symptoms among TGD children, and poor peer relations carries risk for externalizing symptoms among TGD youth.

"Second generation" voices: queer youth with lesbian/bisexual mothers.

Research on the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) youth with LGBTQ parents is absent in the social science literature. The present qualitative, exploratory study utilized a social constructionist and queer theoretical lens through which to explore the sexual/gender identity formation and disclosure experiences of 18 LGBTQ young adults with lesbian/bisexual mothers. Findings suggest that LGBTQ parents may have a uniquely positive influence on their LGBTQ children in regard to their sexual and gender identity development. However, some participants reported perceiving societal scrutiny related to their mothers' lesbian/bisexual identities and, thus, felt pressure to be heterosexual and gender-conforming. Furthermore, some participants did not necessarily utilize or view their lesbian/bisexual mothers as sources of support in relation to their own sexual/gender identity formation. While much more research is needed that examines the experiences of LGBTQ children with LGBTQ parents, this study represents a first step in addressing the existing literature gap.

Perspectives of Mothers of Transgender and Gender-Nonconforming Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

This study represents findings from interviews at two time points with three mothers of transgender and gender-nonconforming (TGNC) children (ages 8 to 12 years at T1) with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Of interest was the mothers' experiences of raising a TGNC child with ASD, and whether/how the children's autism played a role in their understandings of their children's gender identities and expressions. The mothers' fear of a transphobic/cisnormative society and wondering about whether their children's ASD influenced or caused their children's gender variance were barriers to fully embracing their children's gender nonconformity. Unclear causes of children's social/emotional difficulties and lack of adequate resources and support were identified challenges. Positive interventions and resources were also discussed. Recommendations for clinicians and other professionals who serve TGNC youth with autism and their families are presented.

Trans and gender-nonconforming children and their caregivers: Gender presentations, peer relations, and well-being at baseline.

This study, involving a community-based sample of 45 predominantly white primary caregivers of 45 trans and gender-nonconforming (TGNC) children between 6 and 12 years of age, provides descriptive data on children's gender presentations, peer relations, and well-being. Most (n = 31; 69%) of the children were cross-gender identified (CGI). That is, 17 of 28 children assigned male at birth explicitly and consistently identified as girls, and 14 of 17 children assigned female at birth explicitly and consistently identified as boys. The 14 remaining children appeared to have nonbinary gender identities (e.g., "boy-girl") or to identify with the sex and gender they were assigned at birth but were gender-nonconforming, or their gender identities were uncertain. This subgroup was labeled non-CGI. Most of the children were in the normal range for internalizing (64%), externalizing (67%), and total behavior problems (62%), yet a sizable minority were in the borderline-clinical/clinical range for these symptoms. Children in the CGI group had fewer internalizing and total problems than children in the non-CGI group. Child's degree of gender conformity, caregiver's level of anxiety, and child's peer relations were correlated with children's well-being; children in the CGI group were reported to have better peer relations than children in the non-CGI group. Caregivers' rates of depression and anxiety appeared to be similar to normative samples, although anxiety may have been slightly elevated. Findings from this study add to a small but growing body of literature that documents the well-being of TGNC children growing up in supportive and affirming familial environments. (PsycINFO Database Record

Social skills and behavior problems of urban, African American preschoolers: role of parenting practices, family conflict, and maternal depression.

This study examined the role of parenting, family routines, family conflict, and maternal depression in predicting the social skills and behavior problems of low-income African American preschoolers. A sample of 184 African American mothers of Head Start children completed participant and child measures in a structured interview. Results of regression analyses revealed that mothers who utilized more positive parenting practices and engaged in more family routines had children who displayed higher levels of total prosocial skills. Positive parenting and lower levels of maternal depressive symptoms were predictive of fewer externalizing and internalizing child behavior problems. Lower family conflict was linked with fewer externalizing problems. Implications of the study for future research and intervention are discussed.

Sexual socialization in lesbian-parent families: an exploratory analysis.

Few studies have examined the sexual socialization of children within lesbian-parent families, despite evidence that these children may experience benefits in this regard. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 10 partnered, lesbian mothers to explore what and how participants taught their children about sexuality-related issues. Themes related to what participants taught their children about these topics included diverse notions of sexual orientation and reproduction. Themes related to how participants taught these concepts included tag-teaming with their partners (i.e., participants shared with their partners the task of teaching their children about sexuality-related issues), although differences in how the partners carried out this task were identified. This study demonstrated a diversity of experiences of lesbian-parent families, often seemingly in relation to family contextual factors (e.g., how children were conceived), and has potential implications for family researchers, practitioners, and, perhaps, all parents.