Parental factors affecting the weights of the placenta and the offspring.

AIM: To determine parental, especially paternal factors associated with the weight of the placenta and offspring. METHODS: This population-based birth-cohort study includes 2947 singleton children born from April 2006 to 2007 and living in Drenthe, The Netherlands. Placental weight and birth weight were measured and questionnaires were filled out for this cohort. Associations between parental factors, and the weight of the placenta and the offspring were evaluated using univariate and multivariate linear regression models. RESULTS: Univariate regression revealed that the paternal birth weight and body mass index (BMI) of the father were predictors for placental and birth weight of the offspring. However, they were not independent predictors. Independent predictors for placental weight were the maternal factors of pre-pregnancy BMI, birth weight, and diabetes. The maternal factors of weight gain during pregnancy, birth weight, smoking during pregnancy, and diabetes were independent predictors for birth weight of the offspring. CONCLUSION: Paternal as well as maternal factors influence the weight of the placenta and the offspring.

Determinants of Weight Gain during the First Two Years of Life--The GECKO Drenthe Birth Cohort.

OBJECTIVES: To explain weight gain patterns in the first two years of life, we compared the predictive values of potential risk factors individually and within four different domains: prenatal, nutrition, lifestyle and socioeconomic factors. METHODS: In a Dutch population-based birth cohort, length and weight were measured in 2475 infants at 1, 6, 12 and 24 months. Factors that might influence weight gain (e.g. birth weight, parental BMI, breastfeeding, hours of sleep and maternal education) were retrieved from health care files and parental questionnaires. Factors were compared with linear regression to best explain differences in weight gain, defined as changes in Z-score of weight-for-age and weight-for-length over 1-6, 6-12 and 12-24 months. In a two-step approach, factors were first studied individually for their association with growth velocity, followed by a comparison of the explained variance of the four domains. RESULTS: Birth weight and type of feeding were most importantly related to weight gain in the first six months. Breastfeeding versus formula feeding showed distinct growth patterns in the first six months, but not thereafter. From six months onwards, the ability to explain differences in weight gain decreased substantially (from R2total = 38.7% to R2total<7%). CONCLUSION: Birth weight and breast feeding were most important to explain early weight gain, especially in the first six months of life. After the first six months of life other yet undetermined factors start to play a role.

Waist-to-height ratio, waist circumference and BMI as indicators of percentage fat mass and cardiometabolic risk factors in children aged 3-7 years.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether waist-to-height-ratio (WHtR) is a better estimate of body fat percentage (BF%) and a better indicator of cardiometabolic risk factors than BMI or waist circumference (WC) in young children. METHODS: WHtR, WC and BMI were measured by trained staff according to standardized procedures. (2)H2O and (2)H2(18)O isotope dilution were used to assess BF% in 61 children (3-7 years) from the general population, and bioelectrical impedance (Horlick equation) was used to assess BF% in 75 overweight/obese children (3-5 years). Cardiometabolic risk factors, including diastolic and systolic blood pressure, HOMA2-IR, leptin, adiponectin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL- and LDL-cholesterol, TNFα and IL-6 were determined in the overweight/obese children. RESULTS: In the children from the general population, after adjustments for age and gender, BMI had the highest explained variance for BF% compared to WC and WHtR (R(2) = 0.32, 0.31 and 0.23, respectively). In the overweight/obese children, BMI and WC had a higher explained variance for BF% compared to WHtR (R(2) = 0.68, 0.70 and 0.50, respectively). In the overweight/obese children, WHtR, WC and BMI were all significantly positively correlated with systolic blood pressure (r = 0.23, 0.30, 0.36, respectively), HOMA2-IR (r = 0.53, 0.62, 0.63, respectively), leptin (r = 0.70, 0.77, 0.78, respectively) and triglycerides (r = 0.33, 0.36, 0.24, respectively), but not consistently with other parameters. CONCLUSION: In young children, WHtR is not superior to WC or BMI in estimating BF%, nor is WHtR better correlated with cardiometabolic risk factors than WC or BMI in overweight/obese children. These data do not support the use of WHtR in young children.

Comparison of methods to assess body fat in non-obese six to seven-year-old children.

BACKGROUND & AIM: Different non-invasive methods exist to evaluate total body fat in children. Most methods have shown to be able to confirm a high fat percentage in children with overweight and obesity. No data are available on the estimation of total body fat in non-obese children. The aim of this study is to compare total body fat, assessed by different methods in non-obese children. METHODS: We compared total body fat, assessed by isotope dilution, dual energy X-ray, skinfold thickness, bioelectrical impedance analysis, combination of these methods as well as BMI in 30 six to seven-year-old children. RESULTS: The children had a mean BMI of 16.01kg/m(2) (range 13.51-20.32) and five children were overweight according to international criteria. Different methods showed rather different absolute values for total body fat. Bland-Altman analysis showed that the difference between the DEXA method and isotope dilution was dependent on the fat percentage. Children with the same BMI show a marked variation in total body fat ranging from 8% to 22% as estimated from the isotope dilution method. CONCLUSION: Non-invasive methods are presently not suited to assess the absolute amount of total body fat in 6-7 years old children.

The bioelectrical impedance vector migration in healthy infants.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Detecting young children with high amount of body fat is important to intervene in the development of obesity. The aim of this study is to gain inside in the bioelectrical impedance vector analysis in healthy infants. METHODS: Repeated measurements of whole body reactance and resistance were assessed, using a 50kHz frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis, in 51 boys and 62 girls during infancy. Bivariate vector analysis, which can be used to determine tissue hydration and soft tissue mass, was conducted. The 95% confidence intervals of the mean vectors for different age groups and the 95%, 75% and 50% tolerance intervals were plotted, using resistance and reactance components standardized by the participant's height. RESULTS: During infancy impedance vectors changed significantly: A vector migration of the Xc/H of 8.50ohm/m and the R/H of -95.68ohm/m between the age of two months and eight to twelve months (p=0.0001) was observed. Bivariate, reference tolerance intervals of the impedance vectors for healthy infants at the age of two months are presented. CONCLUSION: Our results show a significant impedance vector migration during the first year of life. New reference tolerance intervals for the second month of life were constructed.

Early diffusion-weighted MRI and 1H-Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in asphyxiated full-term neonates.

AIM: To assess the predictive value of early MRI and proton MR spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS), 11 full-term neonates with severe perinatal asphyxia were studied within 48 h after birth. METHODS: T(1)- and T(2)-weighted MRI, diffusion-weighted MRI (DW-MRI), apparent diffusion coefficient of water (ADC) of the basal ganglia and parietal white matter, as well as (1)H-MRS of the basal ganglia were performed in a 1.5-Tesla magnetic field. Neurodevelopment was assessed in the survivors for at least 24 months. RESULTS: Nine of the 11 neonates had a poor outcome (7 died, 2 developed cerebral palsy). All examinations were normal in the 2 neonates with a good outcome. T(1)- and T(2)-weighted MRI were abnormal in 7, DWI was abnormal in 7, ADC was abnormal in 5, and elevated lactate/N-acetylaspartate ratios using (1)H-MRS were seen in 7 of the 9 neonates with a poor outcome. None of these 9 had completely normal MRI or (1)H-MRS findings. CONCLUSIONS: Using a combination of T(1)- and T(2)-weighted MRI, DW-MRI, ADC measurements and (1)H-MRS within 48 h after severe perinatal asphyxia, no abnormalities were seen with any of these techniques in both neonates with a good outcome.