ß-glycerophosphate, not low magnitude fluid shear stress, increases osteocytogenesis in the osteoblast-to-osteocyte cell line IDG-SW3.

AIM: As osteoblasts deposit a mineralized collagen network, a subpopulation of these cells differentiates into osteocytes. Biochemical and mechanical stimuli, particularly fluid shear stress (FSS), are thought to regulate this, but their relative influence remains unclear. Here, we assess both biochemical and mechanical stimuli on long-term bone formation and osteocytogenesis using the osteoblast-osteocyte cell line IDG-SW3. METHODS: Due to the relative novelty and uncommon culture conditions of IDG-SW3 versus other osteoblast-lineage cell lines, effects of temperature and media formulation on matrix deposition and osteocytogenesis were initially characterized. Subsequently, the relative influence of biochemical (ß-glycerophosphate (ßGP) and ascorbic acid 2-phosphate (AA2P)) and mechanical stimulation on osteocytogenesis was compared, with intermittent application of low magnitude FSS generated by see-saw rocker. RESULTS: ßGP and AA2P supplementation were required for mineralization and osteocytogenesis, with 33°C cultures retaining a more osteoblastic phenotype and 37°C cultures undergoing significantly higher osteocytogenesis. ßGP concentration positively correlated with calcium deposition, whilst AA2P stimulated alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and collagen deposition. We demonstrate that increasing ßGP concentration also significantly enhances osteocytogenesis as quantified by the expression of green fluorescent protein linked to Dmp1. Intermittent FSS (~0.06 Pa) rocker had no effect on osteocytogenesis and matrix deposition. CONCLUSIONS: This work demonstrates the suitability and ease with which IDG-SW3 can be utilized in osteocytogenesis studies. IDG-SW3 mineralization was only mediated through biochemical stimuli with no detectable effect of low magnitude FSS. Osteocytogenesis of IDG-SW3 primarily occurred in mineralized areas, further demonstrating the role mineralization of the bone extracellular matrix has in osteocyte differentiation.

Bioactive Bromotyrosine Derivatives from the Pacific Marine Sponge Suberea clavata (Pulitzer-Finali, 1982).

Chemical investigation of the South-Pacific marine sponge Suberea clavata led to the isolation of eight new bromotyrosine metabolites named subereins 1-8 (2-9) along with twelve known co-isolated congeners. The detailed configuration determination of the first representative major compound of this family 11-epi-fistularin-3 (11R,17S) (1) is described. Their chemical characterization was achieved by HRMS and integrated 1D and 2D NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopic studies and extensive comparison with literature data. For the first time, a complete assignment of the absolute configurations for stereogenic centers C-11/17 of the known members (11R,17S) 11-epi-fistularin-3 (1) and 17-deoxyfistularin-3 (10) was determined by a combination of chemical modifications, Mosher's technology, and ECD spectroscopy. Consequently, the absolute configurations of all our new isolated compounds 2-9 were determined by the combination of NMR, Mosher's method, ECD comparison, and chemical modifications. Interestingly, compounds 2-7 were obtained by chemical transformation of the major compound 11-epi-fistularin-3 (1). Evaluation for acetylcholinesterase inhibition (AChE), DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) modulating activity and antifouling activities using marine bacterial strains are also presented.

Revealing hidden information in osteoblast's mechanotransduction through analysis of time patterns of critical events.

BACKGROUND: Mechanotransduction in bone cells plays a pivotal role in osteoblast differentiation and bone remodelling. Mechanotransduction provides the link between modulation of the extracellular matrix by mechanical load and intracellular activity. By controlling the balance between the intracellular and extracellular domains, mechanotransduction determines the optimum functionality of skeletal dynamics. Failure of this relationship was suggested to contribute to bone-related diseases such as osteoporosis. RESULTS: A hybrid mechanical and agent-based model (Mech-ABM), simulating mechanotransduction in a single osteoblast under external mechanical perturbations, was utilised to simulate and examine modulation of the activation dynamics of molecules within mechanotransduction on the cellular response to mechanical stimulation. The number of molecules and their fluctuations have been analysed in terms of recurrences of critical events. A numerical approach has been developed to invert subordination processes and to extract the direction processes from the molecular signals in order to derive the distribution of recurring events. These predict that there are large fluctuations enclosing information hidden in the noise which is beyond the dynamic variations of molecular baselines. Moreover, studying the system under different mechanical load regimes and altered dynamics of feedback loops, illustrate that the waiting time distributions of each molecule are a signature of the system's state. CONCLUSIONS: The behaviours of the molecular waiting times change with the changing of mechanical load regimes and altered dynamics of feedback loops, presenting the same variation of patterns for similar interacting molecules and identifying specific alterations for key molecules in mechanotransduction. This methodology could be used to provide a new tool to identify potent molecular candidates to modulate mechanotransduction, hence accelerate drug discovery towards therapeutic targets for bone mass upregulation.

Traction Forces of Endothelial Cells under Slow Shear Flow.

Endothelial cells are constantly exposed to fluid shear stresses that regulate vascular morphogenesis, homeostasis, and disease. The mechanical responses of endothelial cells to relatively high shear flow such as that characteristic of arterial circulation has been extensively studied. Much less is known about the responses of endothelial cells to slow shear flow such as that characteristic of venous circulation, early angiogenesis, atherosclerosis, intracranial aneurysm, or interstitial flow. Here we used a novel, to our knowledge, microfluidic technique to measure traction forces exerted by confluent vascular endothelial cell monolayers under slow shear flow. We found that cells respond to flow with rapid and pronounced increases in traction forces and cell-cell stresses. These responses are reversible in time and do not involve reorientation of the cell body. Traction maps reveal that local cell responses to slow shear flow are highly heterogeneous in magnitude and sign. Our findings unveil a low-flow regime in which endothelial cell mechanics is acutely responsive to shear stress.

Primary cilia mechanics affects cell mechanosensation: A computational study.

Primary cilia (PC) are mechanical cell structures linked to the cytoskeleton and are central to how cells sense biomechanical signals from their environment. However, it is unclear exactly how PC mechanics influences cell mechanosensation. In this study we investigate how the PC mechanical characteristics are involved in the mechanotransduction process whereby cilium deflection under fluid flow induces strains on the internal cell components that regulate the cell׳s mechanosensitive response. Our investigation employs a computational approach in which a finite element model of a cell consisting of a nucleus, cytoplasm, cortex, microtubules, actin bundles and a primary cilium was used together with a finite element representation of a flow chamber. Fluid-structure interaction analysis was performed by simulating perfusion flow of 1mm/s on the cell model. Simulations of cells with different PC mechanical characteristics, showed that the length and the stiffness of PC are responsible for the transmission of mechanical stimuli to the cytoskeleton. Fluid flow deflects the cilium, with the highest strains found at the base of the PC and in the cytoplasm. The PC deflection created further strains on the cell nucleus but did not influence microtubules and actin bundles significantly. Our results indicate that PC deflection under fluid flow stimulation transmits mechanical strain primarily to other essential organelles in the cytoplasm, such as the Golgi complex, that regulate cells' mechanoresponse. The simulations further suggest that cell mechanosensitivity can be altered by targeting PC length and rigidity.

The effect of sustained compression on oxygen metabolic transport in the intervertebral disc decreases with degenerative changes.

Intervertebral disc metabolic transport is essential to the functional spine and provides the cells with the nutrients necessary to tissue maintenance. Disc degenerative changes alter the tissue mechanics, but interactions between mechanical loading and disc transport are still an open issue. A poromechanical finite element model of the human disc was coupled with oxygen and lactate transport models. Deformations and fluid flow were linked to transport predictions by including strain-dependent diffusion and advection. The two solute transport models were also coupled to account for cell metabolism. With this approach, the relevance of metabolic and mechano-transport couplings were assessed in the healthy disc under loading-recovery daily compression. Disc height, cell density and material degenerative changes were parametrically simulated to study their influence on the calculated solute concentrations. The effects of load frequency and amplitude were also studied in the healthy disc by considering short periods of cyclic compression. Results indicate that external loads influence the oxygen and lactate regional distributions within the disc when large volume changes modify diffusion distances and diffusivities, especially when healthy disc properties are simulated. Advection was negligible under both sustained and cyclic compression. Simulating degeneration, mechanical changes inhibited the mechanical effect on transport while disc height, fluid content, nucleus pressure and overall cell density reductions affected significantly transport predictions. For the healthy disc, nutrient concentration patterns depended mostly on the time of sustained compression and recovery. The relevant effect of cell density on the metabolic transport indicates the disturbance of cell number as a possible onset for disc degeneration via alteration of the metabolic balance. Results also suggest that healthy disc properties have a positive effect of loading on metabolic transport. Such relation, relevant to the maintenance of the tissue functional composition, would therefore link disc function with disc nutrition.

In silico evaluation of a new composite disc substitute with a L3-L5 lumbar spine finite element model.

When the intervertebral disc is removed to relieve chronic pain, subsequent segment stabilization should restore the functional mechanics of the native disc. Because of partially constrained motions and the lack of intrinsic rotational stiffness ball-on-socket implants present many disadvantages. Composite disc substitutes mimicking healthy disc structures should be able to assume the role expected for a disc substitute with fewer restrictions than ball-on-socket implants. A biomimetic composite disc prototype including artificial nucleus fibre-reinforced annulus and endplates was modelled as an L4-L5 disc substitute within a L3-L5 lumbar spine finite element model. Different device updates, i.e. changes of material properties fibre distributions and volume fractions and nucleus placements were proposed. Load- and displacement-controlled rotations were simulated with and without body weight applied. The original prototype reduced greatly the flexibility of the treated segment with significant adjacent level effects under displacement-controlled or hybrid rotations. Device updates allowed restoring large part of the global axial and sagittal rotational flexibility predicted with the intact model. Material properties played a major role, but some other updates were identified to potentially tune the device behaviour against specific motions. All device versions altered the coupled intersegmental shear deformations affecting facet joint contact through contact area displacements. Loads in the bony endplates adjacent to the implants increased as the implant stiffness decreased but did not appear to be a strong limitation for the implant biomechanical and mechanobiological functionality. In conclusion, numerical results given by biomimetic composite disc substitutes were encouraging with greater potential than that offered by ball-on-socket implants.

Structure and in vitro antiparasitic activity of constituents of Citropsis articulata root bark.

From the results of an ethnomedicinal investigation of plants from Uganda with antimalarial activity, Citropsis articulata was selected because of the antiplasmodial effect of an ethyl acetate extract of its root bark. Thus, from the cyclohexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts, two new heterocyclic compounds, omubioside (1) and katimborine (2), were isolated in addition to five known coumarins (rutarin (3), seselin (4), suberosin (5), demethylsuberosin (6), and haploperoside (7)), two known alkaloids (5-hydroxynoracronycine (8) and 1,5-dihydroxy-2,3-dimethoxy-10-methyl-9-acridone (9)), trigonelline (10), and the limonoid 7α-obacunyl acetate (11). The best growth inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum were alkaloids 8 and 9, with IC50 values of 0.9 and 3.0 µg/mL.

A systematic approach to the scale separation problem in the development of multiscale models.

Throughout engineering there are problems where it is required to predict a quantity based on the measurement of another, but where the two quantities possess characteristic variations over vastly different ranges of time and space. Among the many challenges posed by such 'multiscale' problems, that of defining a 'scale' remains poorly addressed. This fundamental problem has led to much confusion in the field of biomedical engineering in particular. The present study proposes a definition of scale based on measurement limitations of existing instruments, available computational power, and on the ranges of time and space over which quantities of interest vary characteristically. The definition is used to construct a multiscale modelling methodology from start to finish, beginning with a description of the system (portion of reality of interest) and ending with an algorithmic orchestration of mathematical models at different scales within the system. The methodology is illustrated for a specific but well-researched problem. The concept of scale and the multiscale modelling approach introduced are shown to be easily adaptable to other closely related problems. Although out of the scope of this paper, we believe that the proposed methodology can be applied widely throughout engineering.

Analysis of mechanotransduction dynamics during combined mechanical stimulation and modulation of the extracellular-regulated kinase cascade uncovers hidden information within the signalling noise.

Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by brittle bone and increased fracture incidence. With ageing societies worldwide, the disease presents a high burden on health systems. Furthermore, there are limited treatments for osteoporosis with just two anabolic pharmacological agents approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. Healthy bones are believed to be maintained via an intricate relationship between dual biochemical and mechanical (bio-mechanical) stimulations. It is widely considered that osteoporosis emerges as a result of disturbances to said relationship. The mechanotransduction process is key to this balance, and disruption of its dynamics in bone cells plays a role in osteoporosis development. Nonetheless, the exact details and mechanisms that drive and secure the health of bones are still elusive at the cellular and molecular scales. This study examined the dual modulation of mechanical stimulation and mechanotransduction activation dynamics in an osteoblast (OB). The aim was to find patterns of mechanotransduction dynamics demonstrating a significant change that can be mapped to alterations in the OB responses, specifically at the level of gene expression and osteogenic markers such as alkaline phosphatase. This was achieved using a three-dimensional hybrid multiscale computational model simulating mechanotransduction in the OB and its interaction with the extracellular matrix, combined with a numerical analytical technique. The model and the analysis method predict that within the noise of mechanotransduction, owing to modulation of the bio-mechanical stimulus and consequent gene expression, there are unique events that provide signatures for a shift in the system's dynamics. Furthermore, the study uncovered molecular interactions that can be potential drug targets.

A Novel Three-Dimensional Computational Method to Assess Rod Contour Deformation and to Map Bony Fusion in a Lumbopelvic Reconstruction After En-Bloc Sacrectomy.

Introduction: En-bloc resection of a primary malignant sacral tumor with wide oncological margins impacts the biomechanics of the spinopelvic complex, deteriorating postoperative function. The closed-loop technique (CLT) for spinopelvic fixation (SPF) uses a single U-shaped rod to restore the spinopelvic biomechanical integrity. The CLT method was designed to provide a non-rigid fixation, however this hypothesis has not been previously tested. Here, we establish a computational method to measure the deformation of the implant and characterize the bony fusion process based on the 6-year follow-up (FU) data. Materials and Methods: Post-operative CT scans were collected of a male patient who underwent total sacrectomy at the age of 42 due to a chordoma. CLT was used to reconstruct the spinopelvic junction. We defined the 3D geometry of the implant construct. Using rigid registration algorithms, a common coordinate system was created for the CLT to measure and visualize the deformation of the construct during the FU. In order to demonstrate the cyclical loading of the construct, the patient underwent gait analysis at the 6th year FU. First, a region of interest (ROI) was selected at the proximal level of the construct, then the deformation was determined during the follow-up period. In order to investigate the fusion process, a single axial slice-based voxel finite element (FE) mesh was created. The Hounsfield values (HU) were determined, then using an empirical linear equation, bone mineral density (BMD) values were assigned for every mesh element, out of 10 color-coded categories (1st category = 0 g/cm3, 10th category 1.12 g/cm3). Results: Significant correlation was found between the number of days postoperatively and deformation in the sagittal plane, resulting in a forward bending tendency of the construct. Volume distributions were determined and visualized over time for the different BMD categories and it was found that the total volume of the elements in the highest BMD category in the first postoperative CT was 0.04 cm3, at the 2nd year, FU was 0.98 cm3, and after 6 years, it was 2.30 cm3. Conclusion: The CLT provides a non-rigid fixation. The quantification of implant deformation and bony fusion may help understate the complex lumbopelvic biomechanics after sacrectomy.

A novel algorithm to predict bone changes in the mouse tibia properties under physiological conditions.

Understanding how bone adapts to mechanical stimuli is fundamental for optimising treatments against musculoskeletal diseases in preclinical studies, but the contribution of physiological loading to bone adaptation in mouse tibia has not been quantified so far. In this study, a novel mechanistic model to predict bone adaptation based on physiological loading was developed and its outputs were compared with longitudinal scans of the mouse tibia. Bone remodelling was driven by the mechanical stimuli estimated from micro-FEA models constructed from micro-CT scans of C57BL/6 female mice (N = 5) from weeks 14 and 20 of age, to predict bone changes in week 16 or 22. Parametric analysis was conducted to evaluate the sensitivity of the models to subject-specific or averaged parameters, parameters from week 14 or week 20, and to strain energy density (SED) or maximum principal strain (εmaxprinc). The results at week 20 showed no significant difference in bone densitometric properties between experimental and predicted images across the tibia for both stimuli, and 59% and 47% of the predicted voxels matched with the experimental sites in apposition and resorption, respectively. The model was able to reproduce regions of bone apposition in both periosteal and endosteal surfaces (70% and 40% for SED and εmaxprinc, respectively), but it under-predicted the experimental sites of resorption by over 85%. This study shows for the first time the potential of a subject-specific mechanoregulation algorithm to predict bone changes in a mouse model under physiological loading. Nevertheless, the weak predictions of resorption suggest that a combined stimulus or biological stimuli should be accounted for in the model.

An extended discrete element method for the estimation of contact pressure at the ankle joint during stance phase.

Abnormalities in the ankle contact pressure are related to the onset of osteoarthritis. In vivo measurements are not possible with currently available techniques, so computational methods such as the finite element analysis (FEA) are often used instead. The discrete element method (DEM), a computationally efficient alternative to time-consuming FEA, has also been used to predict the joint contact pressure. It describes the articular cartilage as a bed of independent springs, assuming a linearly elastic behaviour and absence of relative motion between the bones. In this study, we present the extended DEM (EDEM) which is able to track the motion of talus over time. The method was used, with input data from a subject-specific musculoskeletal model, to predict the contact pressure in the ankle joint during gait. Results from EDEM were also compared with outputs from conventional DEM. Predicted values of contact area were larger in EDEM than they were in DEM (4.67 and 4.18 cm2, respectively). Peak values of contact pressure, attained at the toe-off, were 7.3 MPa for EDEM and 6.92 MPa for DEM. Values predicted from EDEM fell well within the ranges reported in the literature. Overall, the motion of the talus had more effect on the extension and shape of the pressure distribution than it had on the magnitude of the pressure. The results indicated that EDEM is a valid methodology for the prediction of ankle contact pressure during daily activities.

Finite element modelling of hybrid stabilization systems for the human lumbar spine.

Intersomatic fusion is a very popular treatment for spinal diseases associated with intervertebral disc degeneration. The effects of three different hybrid stabilization systems on both range of motion and intradiscal pressure were investigated, as there is no consensus in the literature about the efficiency of these systems. Finite element simulations were designed to predict the variations of range of motion and intradiscal pressure from intact to implanted situations. After hybrid stabilization system implantation, L4-L5 level did not lose its motion completely, while L5-S1 had no mobility as a consequence of disc removal and fusion process. BalanC hybrid stabilization system represented higher mobility at the index level, reduced intradiscal pressure of adjacent level, but caused to increment in range of motion by 20% under axial rotation. Higher tendency by 93% to the failure was also detected under axial rotation. Dynesys hybrid stabilization system represented more restricted motion than BalanC, and negligible effects to the adjacent level. B-DYN hybrid stabilization system was the most rigid one among all three systems. It reduced intradiscal pressure and range of motion at the adjacent level except from motion under axial rotation being increased by 13%. Fracture risk of B-DYN and Dynesys Transition Optima components was low when compared with BalanC. Mobility of the adjacent level around axial direction should be taken into account in case of implantation with BalanC and B-DYN systems, as well as on the development of new designs. Having these findings in mind, it is clear that hybrid systems need to be further tested, both clinically and numerically, before being considered for common use.

Changes in scaffold porosity during bone tissue engineering in perfusion bioreactors considerably affect cellular mechanical stimulation for mineralization.

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) experiments in vitro have shown that fluid-induced wall shear stress (WSS) can stimulate cells to produce mineralized extracellular matrix (ECM). The application of WSS on seeded cells can be achieved through bioreactors that perfuse medium through porous scaffolds. In BTE experiments in vitro, commonly a constant flow rate is used. Previous studies have found that tissue growth within the scaffold will result in an increase of the WSS over time. To keep the WSS in a reported optimal range of 10-30 mPa, the applied external flow rate can be decreased over time. To investigate what reduction of the external flow rate during culturing is needed to keep the WSS in the optimal range, we here conducted a computational study, which simulated the formation of ECM, and in which we investigated the effect of constant fluid flow and different fluid flow reduction scenarios on the WSS. It was found that for both constant and reduced fluid flow scenarios, the WSS did not exceed a critical value, which was set to 60 mPa. However, the constant flow velocity resulted in a reduction of the cell/ECM surface being exposed to a WSS in the optimal range from 50% at the start of culture to 18.6% at day 21. Reducing the fluid flow over time could avoid much of this effect, leaving the WSS in the optimal range for 40.9% of the surface at 21 days. Therefore, for achieving more mineralized tissue, the conventional manner of loading the perfusion bioreactors (i.e. constant flow rate/velocity) should be changed to a decreasing flow over time in BTE experiments. This study provides an in silico tool for finding the best fluid flow reduction strategy.

Development of a Computer-Aided Design and Finite Element Analysis Combined Method for Affordable Spine Surgical Navigation With 3D-Printed Customized Template.

Introduction: Revision surgery of a previous lumbosacral non-union is highly challenging, especially in case of complications, such as a broken screw at the first sacral level (S1). Here, we propose the implementation of a new method based on the CT scan of a clinical case using 3D reconstruction, combined with finite element analysis (FEA), computer-assisted design (CAD), and 3D-printing technology to provide accurate surgical navigation to aid the surgeon in performing the optimal surgical technique by inserting a pedicle screw at the S1 level. Materials and Methods: A step-by-step approach was developed and performed as follows: (1) Quantitative CT based patient-specific FE model of the sacrum was created. (2) The CAD model of the pedicle screw was inserted into the sacrum model in a bicortical convergent and a monocortical divergent position, by overcoming the geometrical difficulty caused by the broken screw. (3) Static FEAs (Abaqus, Dassault Systemes) were performed using 500 N tensile load applied to the screw head. (4) A template with two screw guiding structures for the sacrum was designed and manufactured using CAD design and 3D-printing technologies, and investment casting. (5) The proposed surgical technique was performed on the patient-specific physical model created with the FDM printing technology. The patient-specific model was CT scanned and a comparison with the virtual plan was performed to evaluate the template accuracy Results: FEA results proved that the modified bicortical convergent insertion is stiffer (6,617.23 N/mm) compared to monocortical divergent placement (2,989.07 N/mm). The final template was created via investment casting from cobalt-chrome. The template design concept was shown to be accurate (grade A, Gertzbein-Robbins scale) based on the comparison of the simulated surgery using the patient-specific physical model and the 3D virtual surgical plan. Conclusion: Compared to the conventional surgical navigation techniques, the presented method allows the consideration of the patient-specific biomechanical parameters; is more affordable, and the intraoperative X-ray exposure can be reduced. This new patient- and condition-specific approach may be widely used in revision spine surgeries or in challenging primary cases after its further clinical validation.

[The care process of patient receiving CAR T-cell therapy: Guidelines from the Francophone Society of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy (SFGM-TC)]. / Le parcours de soins du patient dans le cadre des CAR T-cell : recommandations de la Société francophone de greffe de moelle et de thérapie cellulaire (SFGM-TC).

In Europe, two CAR T-cell products, tisagenlecleucel (Kymriah™) and axicabtagene ciloleucel (Yescarta™), were approved in 2018. While these treatments are available for use, allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation centers still need to set up a dedicated care process inspired by established procedures in the field. In order to determine necessary resources and actors, each step of the CAR T-cell care process must be planned in advance. This process, implemented by the center's coordinating nurse, should be able to be adapted to each center's needs. The purpose of this workshop is to provide the organizational basis for such a process so that each center wishing to set up CAR-T cell activity can do so effectively. After detailing the coordinating nurse's role, we explain each step of the care process and specify essential additional tests.

Effect of cell sample size in atomic force microscopy nanoindentation.

Single-cell technologies are powerful tools to evaluate cell characteristics. In particular, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) nanoindentation experiments have been widely used to study single cell mechanical properties. One important aspect related to single cell techniques is the need for sufficient statistical power to obtain reliable results. This aspect is often overlooked in AFM experiments were sample sizes are arbitrarily set. The aim of the present work was to propose a tool for sample size estimation in the context of AFM nanoindentation experiments of single cell. To this aim, a retrospective approach was used by acquiring a large dataset of experimental measurements on four bone cell types and by building saturation curves for increasing sample sizes with a bootstrap resampling method. It was observed that the coefficient of variation (CV%) decayed with a function of the form y = axb with similar parameters for all samples tested and that sample sizes of 21 and 83 cells were needed for the specific cells and protocol employed if setting a maximum threshold on CV% of 10% or 5%, respectively. The developed tool is made available as an open-source repository and guidelines are provided for its use for AFM nanoindentation experimental design.

Heterogeneity in The Mechanical Properties of Integrins Determines Mechanotransduction Dynamics in Bone Osteoblasts.

Bone cells are exposed to dynamic mechanical stimulation that is transduced into cellular responses by mechanotransduction mechanisms. The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides a physical link between loading and bone cells, where mechanoreceptors, such as integrins, initiate mechanosensation. Though this relationship is well studied, the dynamic interplay between mechanosensation, mechanotransduction and cellular responses is unclear. A hybrid-multiscale model combining molecular, cellular and tissue interactions was developed to examine links between integrins' mechanosensation and effects on mechanotransduction, ECM modulation and cell-ECM interaction. The model shows that altering integrin mechanosensitivity threshold (MT) increases mechanotransduction durations from hours to beyond 4 days, where bone formation starts. This is relevant to bone, where it is known that a brief stimulating period provides persistent influences for over 24 hours. Furthermore, the model forecasts that integrin heterogeneity, with respect to MT, would be able to induce sustained increase in pERK baseline > 15% beyond 4 days. This is analogous to the emergence of molecular mechanical memory signalling dynamics. Therefore, the model can provide a greater understanding of mechanical adaptation to differential mechanical responses at different times. Given reduction of bone sensitivity to mechanical stimulation with age, these findings may lead towards useful therapeutic targets for upregulation of bone mass.

Nanotechnology in regenerative medicine: the materials side.

Regenerative medicine is an emerging multidisciplinary field that aims to restore, maintain or enhance tissues and hence organ functions. Regeneration of tissues can be achieved by the combination of living cells, which will provide biological functionality, and materials, which act as scaffolds to support cell proliferation. Mammalian cells behave in vivo in response to the biological signals they receive from the surrounding environment, which is structured by nanometre-scaled components. Therefore, materials used in repairing the human body have to reproduce the correct signals that guide the cells towards a desirable behaviour. Nanotechnology is not only an excellent tool to produce material structures that mimic the biological ones but also holds the promise of providing efficient delivery systems. The application of nanotechnology to regenerative medicine is a wide issue and this short review will only focus on aspects of nanotechnology relevant to biomaterials science. Specifically, the fabrication of materials, such as nanoparticles and scaffolds for tissue engineering, and the nanopatterning of surfaces aimed at eliciting specific biological responses from the host tissue will be addressed.