Detection of herpes viruses in the cerebrospinal fluid of adults with suspected viral meningitis in Malawi.

PURPOSE: We looked for herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2, respectively), varicella zoster virus (VZV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) DNA in Malawian adults with clinically suspected meningitis. METHODS: We collected cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from consecutive adults admitted with clinically suspected meningitis to Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital (QECH), Blantyre, Malawi, for a period of 3 months. Those with proven bacterial or fungal meningitis were excluded. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed on the CSF for HSV-1 and HSV-2, VZV, EBV and CMV DNA. RESULTS: A total of 183 patients presented with clinically suspected meningitis. Of these, 59 (32 %) had proven meningitis (bacterial, tuberculous or cryptococcal), 39 (21 %) had normal CSF and 14 (8 %) had aseptic meningitis. For the latter group, a herpes virus was detected in 9 (64 %): 7 (50 %) had EBV and 2 (14 %) had CMV, all were human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive. HSV-2 and VZV were not detected. Amongst those with a normal CSF, 8 (21 %) had a detectable herpes virus, of which 7 (88 %) were HIV-positive. CONCLUSIONS: The spectrum of causes of herpes viral meningitis in this African population is different to that in Western industrialised settings, with EBV being frequently detected in the CSF. The significance of this needs further investigation.

Infectious diseases among travellers and migrants in Europe, EuroTravNet 2010.

To investigate trends in travel-associated morbidity with particular emphasis on emerging infections with the potential for introduction into Europe, diagnoses of 7,408 returning travellers presenting to 16 EuroTravNet sites in 2010 were compared with 2008 and 2009. A significant increase in reported Plasmodium falciparum malaria (n=361 (6% of all travel-related morbidity) vs. n=254 (4%) and 260 (5%); p<0.001), P. vivax malaria (n=51 (1%) vs. n=31 (0.5%) and 38 (1%); p=0.027) and dengue fever (n=299 (5%) vs. n=127 (2%) and 127 (2%); p<0.001) was observed. Giardia lamblia was identified in 16% of patients with acute diarrhoea, with no significant annual variation. The proportion of acute diarrhoea due to Campylobacter increased from 7% in 2008 to 12% in 2010 (p=0.001). We recorded 121 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in 2010, a threefold increase in the proportionate morbidity from 2008 to 2010. In 2010, 60 (0.8%) cases of chronic Chagas disease, 151 (2%) cases of schistosomiasis and 112 (2%) cases of cutaneous larva migrans were reported. Illness patterns in sentinel travellers, captured by EuroTravnet, continue to highlight the potential role of travellers in the emergence of infectious diseases of public health concern in Europe and the relevance of offering medical travel advice and enforcing specific and adequate prophylaxis.

Patterns of immunodominance in HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in two human histocompatibility leukocyte antigens (HLA)-identical siblings with HLA-A*0201 are influenced by epitope mutation.

Primary human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is controlled principally by HIV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) to a steady-state level of virus load, which strongly influences the ultimate rate of progression to disease. Epitope selection by CTL may be an important determinant of the degree of immune control over the virus. This report describes the CTL responses of two HLA-identical hemophiliac brothers who were exposed to identical batches of Factor VIII and became seropositive within 10 wk of one another. Both have HLA-A*0201. The CTL responses of the two siblings were very dissimilar, one donor making strong responses to two epitopes within p17 Gag (HLA-A*0201-restricted SLYNTVATL and HLA-A3-restricted RLRPGGKKK). The sibling responded to neither epitope, but made strong responses to two epitopes presented by HLA-B7. This was not the result of differences in presentation of the epitopes. However, mutations in both immunodominant epitopes of the p17 Gag responder were seen in proviral sequences of the nonresponder. We then documented the CTL responses to two HLA-A*0201-restricted epitopes, in Gag (SLYNTVATL) and Pol (ILKEPVHGV) in 22 other HIV-infected donors with HLA-A*0201. The majority (71%) generated responses to the Gag epitope. In the 29% of donors failing to respond to the Gag epitope in standard assays, there was evidence of low frequency memory CTL responses using peptide stimulation of PBMC, and most of these donors also showed mutations in or around the Gag epitope. We concluded that HLA class I genotype determines epitope selection initially but that mutation in immunodominant epitopes can profoundly alter the pattern of CTL response.

Use of nail and oral pigmentation to determine ART eligibility among HIV-infected Ugandan adults.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the use of grey/distal banded nails as an indicator of advanced immunosuppression, and thus eligibility for ART, in resource poor settings. METHODS: We tested whether grey/distal banded nails and/or oral pigmentation could be used to identify patients with low CD4 cell counts at two cut-offs: <200 and <350 cells/microl in ART naive adults. RESULTS: Four hundred and three nail and oral cavities were photographed and assessed. Grey/distal banded nails and/or oral pigmentation were significantly associated with a CD4 cell count <200 cells/microl (P < 0.001), with a sensitivity of 66%, a specificity of 50% and a negative predictive value of 77%. However, there was no association when a CD4 cell count cut-off of <350 cells/microl was used. Inter-observer agreement (k 0.46) was fair/moderate. CONCLUSIONS: While grey/distal banded nails and/or oral pigmentation are associated with low CD4 counts, the sensitivity and kappa score are too low for this method to be recommended as a tool to guide ART initiation; large number of individuals eligible for ART would be missed.

Three phylogenetic groups have driven the recent population expansion of Cryptococcus neoformans.

Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans var. grubii) is an environmentally acquired pathogen causing 181,000 HIV-associated deaths each year. We sequenced 699 isolates, primarily C. neoformans from HIV-infected patients, from 5 countries in Asia and Africa. The phylogeny of C. neoformans reveals a recent exponential population expansion, consistent with the increase in the number of susceptible hosts. In our study population, this expansion has been driven by three sub-clades of the C. neoformans VNIa lineage; VNIa-4, VNIa-5 and VNIa-93. These three sub-clades account for 91% of clinical isolates sequenced in our study. Combining the genome data with clinical information, we find that the VNIa-93 sub-clade, the most common sub-clade in Uganda and Malawi, was associated with better outcomes than VNIa-4 and VNIa-5, which predominate in Southeast Asia. This study lays the foundation for further work investigating the dominance of VNIa-4, VNIa-5 and VNIa-93 and the association between lineage and clinical phenotype.

A model for venom-induced consumptive coagulopathy in snake bite.

Many snake venoms contain procoagulant toxins that activate the coagulation cascade and cause venom-induced consumptive coagulopathy (VICC). We developed a semi-mechanistic model of the clotting cascade in order to explore the effects of the procoagulant toxin from taipan venom on this system as well as the effects of antivenom. Simulations of the time course in the change of clotting factors were compared to data collected from taipan envenomed patients. The model accurately predicted the observed concentration of clotting factors over time following taipan envenomation. Investigations from the model indicated that the upper limit of the half-life of the procoagulant toxin was 1h. Simulations from the model also suggest that antivenom for Australasian elapids has negligible effect on reducing the recovery time of the coagulation profile unless administered almost immediately after envenomation. The model has generality to be expanded to describe the effects of other venoms and drugs on the clotting cascade.

Artesunate versus quinine for treating severe malaria.

BACKGROUND: Severe malaria kills over a million people every year. We sought evidence of superiority of artesunate compared with the standard treatment quinine. OBJECTIVES: To compare artesunate with quinine for treating severe malaria. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register (January 2007), CENTRAL (The Cochrane Library 2006, Issue 4), MEDLINE (1966 to January 2007), EMBASE (1974 to January 2007), LILACS (1982 to January 2007), ISI Web of Science (1945 to January 2007), the metaRegister of Controlled trials (mRCT), conference proceedings, and reference lists of articles. We contacted researchers and the World Health Organization. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials comparing intravenous, intramuscular, or rectal artesunate with intravenous or intramuscular quinine for treating adults and children with severe malaria who are unable to take medication by mouth. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two authors assessed the eligibility and methodological quality of trials, extracted and analysed data, and drafted the review. The third author contributed to the design and writing of the review. Death was the primary outcome. Dichotomous outcomes were summarized using relative risks and continuous outcomes by mean differences. Where appropriate, we combined data in meta-analyses. Heterogeneity was investigated for the primary outcome using subgroup analyses. MAIN RESULTS: Six trials enrolling 1938 participants (1664 adults and 274 children) met our inclusion criteria. All six trials were conducted in Asia, and only one small trial enrolled only children. Five trials used intravenous artesunate and one trial intramuscular artesunate; all six used intravenous quinine. Treatment with artesunate significantly reduced the risk of death (RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.75; 1938 participants, 6 trials), reduced parasite clearance time (WMD 8.14 h, 95% CI 11.55 to 4.73; 292 participants, 3 trials), and hypoglycaemia detected by routine monitoring (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.25 to 0.87; 185 participants, 2 trials). There was no evidence of a difference in neurological sequelae, coma recovery time, time to hospital discharge, fever clearance time, or adverse effects other than hypoglycaemia. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Intravenous artesunate is the drug of choice for adults with severe malaria, particularly if acquired in Asia. This review did not identify sufficient data to make firm conclusions about the treatment of children or the effectiveness of intramuscular artesunate. There is an urgent need to compare the effects of artesunate with quinine in African children with severe malaria. The applicability of these results to Asian children and the ethics of further research are points of debate.

A randomized controlled trial of fresh frozen plasma for coagulopathy in Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) envenoming.

Essentials Russell's viper envenoming is a major health issue in South Asia and causes coagulopathy. We studied the effect of fresh frozen plasma and two antivenom doses on correcting coagulopathy. Fresh frozen plasma did not hasten recovery of coagulopathy. Low-dose antivenom did not worsen coagulopathy. SUMMARY: Background Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) envenoming is a major health issue in South Asia and causes venom-induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC). Objectives To investigate the effects of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and two antivenom doses in correcting VICC. Methods We undertook an open-label randomized controlled trial in patients with VICC at two Sri Lankan hospitals. Patients with suspected Russell's viper bites and coagulopathy were randomly allocated (1 : 1) to high-dose antivenom (20 vials) or low-dose antivenom (10 vials) plus 4 U of FFP. The primary outcome was the proportion of patients with an International Normalized Ratio (INR) of < 2 at 6 h after antivenom administration. Secondary outcomes included anaphylaxis, major hemorrhage, death, and clotting factor recovery. Results From 214 eligible patients, 141 were randomized: 71 to high-dose antivenom, and 70 to low-dose antivenom/FFP; five had no post-antivenom blood tests. The groups were similar except for a delay of 1 h in antivenom administration for FFP patients. Six hours after antivenom administration, 23 of 69 (33%) patients allocated to high-dose antivenom had an INR of < 2, as compared with 28 of 67 (42%) allocated to low-dose antivenom/FFP (absolute difference 8%; 95% confidence interval - 8% to 25%). Fifteen patients allocated to FFP did not receive it. Severe anaphylaxis occurred equally frequently in each group. One patient given FFP developed transfusion-related acute lung injury. Three deaths occurred in low-dose antivenom/FFP patients, including one intracranial hemorrhage. There was no difference in recovery rates of INR or fibrinogen, but there was more rapid initial recovery of factor V and FX in FFP patients. Conclusion FFP after antivenom administration in patients with Russell's viper bites did not hasten recovery of coagulopathy. Low-dose antivenom/FFP did not worsen VICC, suggesting that low-dose antivenom is sufficient.

Underestimation of snakebite mortality by hospital statistics in the Monaragala District of Sri Lanka.

Estimates of snakebite mortality are mostly based on hospital data, although these may considerably underestimate the problem. In order to determine the accuracy of hospital-based statistics, data on snakebite mortality in all hospitals in the Monaragala District of Sri Lanka were compared to data on snakebite as the certified cause of death for the district, for the 5-year period between 1999 and 2003. Data were cross-checked in a sample of hospitals and divisional secretariats within the district. Hospital statistics did not report 45 (62.5%) of the true number of snakebite deaths in the Monaragala District. Twenty-six (36.1%) of the victims either did not seek, or had no access to, a hospital. Another 19 (26.4%) had arrived at hospital, but had done so too late to receive treatment. Our study confirms the limitations of official hospital-based mortality data on snakebite.

Identifying the biting species in snakebite by clinical features: an epidemiological tool for community surveys.

The outcome of snakebite is related to the biting species but it is often difficult to identify the biting snake, particularly in community settings. We have developed a clinical scoring system suitable for use in epidemiological surveys, with the main aim of identifying the presumed biting species in those with systemic envenoming who require treatment. The score took into account ten features relating to bites of the five medically important snakes in Sri Lanka, and an algorithm was developed applying different weightings for each feature for different species. A systematically developed artificial data set was used to fine tune the score and to develop criteria for definitive identification. The score was prospectively validated using 134 species-confirmed snakebites. It correctly differentiated the bites caused by the three snakes that commonly cause major clinical problems (Russell's viper (RV), kraits and cobra) from other snakes (hump-nosed viper (HNV) and saw-scaled viper (SSV)) with 80% sensitivity and 100% specificity. For individual species, sensitivity and specificity were, respectively: cobra 76%, 99%; kraits 85%, 99%; and RV 70%, 99%. As anticipated, the score was insensitive in the identification of bites due to HNV and SSV.

Estimates of disease burden due to land-snake bite in Sri Lankan hospitals.

Snake bite is a common cause of hospital admission in Sri Lanka. Despite this, there have been no countrywide studies or national estimates of disease burden due to snake bites in Sri Lankan hospitals. We assessed the disease burden due to snake bite in our hospitals and estimated the frequency of admissions due to bites by different snake species. Sri Lanka was divided into four zones based on climate and topography. Hospital morbidity and mortality data, which are available on an administrative district basis, were collated for the four zones. A survey of opinion among specialist physicians (the Delphi technique) was used to estimate the proportion of bites by different species, and requirements for anti-venom (AV) and intensive care facilities for management of snake bites in hospitals in each of the four zones. A study of hospital admissions due to snake bites in seven selected hospitals was also performed to validate the opinion survey. There was a clear difference in the incidence of hospital admissions due to snake bites in the different zones. Estimates of hospital admissions due to bites by different species also varied considerably between zones. These trends corresponded to estimates of requirements of AV and other supportive health care. Health care planning using data based on environmental information, rather than merely on political boundaries, could lead to targeted distribution of AV and intensive care requirements to manage snake bites.

Snake bites by the Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni): paralysis, hemostatic and electrocardiographic abnormalities, and effects of antivenom.

One hundred sixty-six patients with enzyme immunoassay-proven bites by taipans (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni) were studied in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. One hundred thirty-nine (84%) showed clinical evidence of envenoming: local signs were trivial, but most developed hemostatic disorders and neurotoxicity. The blood of 77% of the patients was incoagulable and 35% bled spontaneously, usually from the gums. Fifty-one per cent had microscopic hematuria. Neurotoxic signs (ptosis, ophthalmoplegia, bulbar paralysis, and peripheral muscular weakness) developed in 85%. Endotracheal intubation was required in 42% and mechanical ventilation in 37%. Electrocardiographic abnormalities (sinus bradycardia and septal T wave inversion) were found in 52% of a group of 69 unselected patients. Specific antivenom raised against Australian taipan venom was effective in stopping spontaneous systemic bleeding and restoring blood coagulability but, in most cases, it neither reversed nor prevented the evolution of paralysis even when given within a few hours of the bite. However, early antivenom treatment was associated statistically with decreased incidence and severity of neurotoxic signs. The low case fatality rate of 4.3% is attributable mainly to the use of mechanical ventilation, a technique rarely available in Papua New Guinea. Earlier use of increased doses of antivenoms of improved specificity might prove more effective.

Severe and complicated falciparum malaria in Melanesian adults in Papua New Guinea.

Severe falciparum malaria usually occurs in children, but also occurs in nonimmune migrants or partially immune adults in areas of unstable transmission. We have studied prospectively 70 adult patients with strictly defined severe malaria from the south coast of Papua New Guinea where malaria transmission is not intense. Only 19 (27.1%) were migrants from areas where malaria transmission does not occur; many other patients were periurban dwellers who had become infected after visits to their home villages. The most common clinical features were jaundice or hepatic dysfunction, impaired consciousness, renal failure, cerebral malaria, and anemia. Hypoglycemia was common following treatment with quinine. The overall case fatality rate was 18.6%; renal failure and cerebral malaria in particular were associated with a poor outcome. Reduction in mortality might be achieved by aggressive therapy of renal failure with earlier institution of dialysis; the use of preventive measures for immigrants or urban dwellers returning to high transmission areas might reduce the incidence of this dangerous disease.

Neurotoxicity, anticoagulant activity and evidence of rhabdomyolysis in patients bitten by death adders (Acanthophis sp.) in southern Papua New Guinea.

Thirty-two patients with enzyme-immunoassay-proven death adder (Acanthophis sp.) bites were studied in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Eighteen were envenomed; local signs were rare and none had incoagulable blood, but all except one had signs of neurotoxicity. Five (27.7%) envenomed patients required intubation and ventilation. One patient developed renal failure, previously undescribed following death adder bites. Laboratory investigations showed mild prolongation of prothrombin and partial thromboplastin times in some patients. In vitro studies showed that the venom contains anticoagulant activity, but does not cause fibrinogenolysis. In contrast to taipan envenoming, neurotoxicity did not progress after antivenom administration, and there was reversal of neurotoxicity, evident within 6 h, in three severely envenomed patients treated less than 12 h after the bite. One patient treated with antivenom and anticholinesterases had the most dramatic response to treatment; the optimum management of bites by this species may include prompt treatment with both antivenom and anticholinesterases in addition to effective first aid.

The emerging syndrome of envenoming by the New Guinea small-eyed snake Micropechis ikaheka.

The New Guinea small-eyed or ikaheka snake, Micropechis ikaheka, which occurs throughout New Guinea and some adjacent islands, is feared by the indigenes. The first proven human fatality was in the 1950s and this species has since been implicated in many other cases of severe and fatal envenoming. Reliable attribution of envenoming to this species in victims unable to capture or kill the snake recently became possible by the use of enzyme immunoassay. Eleven cases of proven envenoming by M. ikaheka, with two fatalities, were identified in Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya. Five patients showed no clinical signs of envenoming. The other six patients showed symptoms typical of envenoming by other Australasian elapids: mild local swelling, local lymphadenopathy, neurotoxicity, generalized myalgia, spontaneous systemic bleeding, incoagulable blood and passage of dark urine (haemoglobinuria or myoglobinuria). Two patients developed hypotension and two died of respiratory paralysis 19 and 38 h after being bitten. In vitro studies indicate that the venom is rich in phospholipase A2, is indirectly haemolytic, anticoagulant and inhibits platelets, but is not procoagulant or fibrinolytic. It shows predominantly post-synaptic neurotoxic and myotoxic activity. Anecdotally, Commonwealth Serum Laboratories' (CSL) death adder antivenom has proved ineffective whereas CSL polyvalent antivenom may be beneficial. Anticholinesterase drugs might prove effective in improving neuromuscular transmission and should be tested in patients with neurotoxic envenoming.

Analysis of referral letters to assess the management of poisonous snake bite in rural Papua New Guinea.

A prospective series of patients envenomed after snake bite was seen at Port Moresby General Hospital (PMGH), Papua New Guinea, between January 1991 and December 1992. Referral letters were received with 60 of the patients who had been initially seen at a health centre. These letters were analysed in conjunction with our own clinical observations. The importance of non-clotting blood and local lymphadenopathy as early signs of systemic poisoning did not appear to be universally recognized by staff in health centres. In some cases, no attempt was made to transfer the patient to hospital until signs of neurotoxicity were established with potentially dangerous delay. Analysis of both hospital and health centre records suggests that the majority of deaths which occurred in Central Province, Papua New Guinea, during the period of the study were due to delay in transfer to hospital. We suggest that all patients with unequivocal signs of envenoming in Central Province, Papua New Guinea, should be transferred to PMGH as soon as possible. Antivenom should also be given as soon as possible, but this does not remove the need for immediate transfer.

The epidemiology of snake bite in Central Province and National Capital District, Papua New Guinea.

Snake bite is an important medical problem in some areas of Papua New Guinea and appears to be most common in the Central Province and National Capital District. The overall incidence for Central Province is 215.5 per 100,000 population, but Kairuku subprovince has an incidence of 526 per 100,000, which is amongst the highest in the world. The clinical pattern of envenoming also varies within the Province, suggesting that different species of snake may be responsible for bites in different areas. Most envenomed patients are bitten during daylight on the lower limb and are rarely able to describe the snake. The mortality rate in Central Province is 7.9 per 100,000; most patients die from ventilatory failure due to severe neurotoxicity. Mortality might be reduced by increased use of compression bandaging as a first aid measure, earlier treatment with antivenom and earlier referral to hospital.

Electrophysiological findings in patients envenomed following the bite of a Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni).

Electrophysiological studies were done on patients with systemic neurotoxicity following the bite of a Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni). Evoked compound muscle action potentials decreased and increased in tandem with clinical deterioration and recovery. Nerve conduction velocities did not change in envenomed patients and were consistent with control studies. Repetitive nerve stimulation studies showed decremental responses in envenomed patients with post-tetanic potentiation followed by post-tetanic exhaustion. The findings are consistent with studies in vitro which suggested that the major action of neurotoxins in Australian taipan venom is at the synapse. The observation that electrophysiological data correlate closely with the clinical condition of the patient has potential application in the assessment of interventions in the management of snake bite victims.

Failure of 3,4-diaminopyridine and edrophonium to produce significant clinical benefit in neurotoxicity following the bite of Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni).

Progressive systemic neurotoxicity is a common feature in patients envenomed following the bite of a Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni). Respiratory paralysis, which commonly results, accounts for considerable morbidity and mortality. Established neurotoxicity does not respond to antivenom. In this study, a combination of clinical and electrophysiological variables was used to assess the effect of edrophonium and 3,4-diaminopyridine in patients with significant neurotoxicity. Both drugs produced minor electrophysiological and clinical changes in envenomed patients. This effect was maximal when the 2 drugs were used in combination, but was insufficient to be of significant clinical benefit. Neither drug can be recommended for use in the management of Papuan taipan bite.