Warming and Inhibition of Salinization at the Ocean's Surface by Cyanobacteria.

This paper describes high-resolution in situ observations of temperature and, for the first time, of salinity in the uppermost skin layer of the ocean, including the influence of large surface blooms of cyanobacteria on those skin properties. In the presence of the blooms, large anomalies of skin temperature and salinity of 0.95°C and -0.49 practical salinity unit were found, but a substantially cooler (-0.22°C) and saltier skin layer (0.19 practical salinity unit) was found in the absence of surface blooms. The results suggest that biologically controlled warming and inhibition of salinization of the ocean's surface occur. Less saline skin layers form during precipitation, but our observations also show that surface blooms of Trichodesmium sp. inhibit evaporation decreasing the salinity at the ocean's surface. This study has important implications in the assessment of precipitation over the ocean using remotely sensed salinity, but also for a better understanding of heat exchange and the hydrologic cycle on a regional scale.

Trace element and isotope deposition across the air-sea interface: progress and research needs.

The importance of the atmospheric deposition of biologically essential trace elements, especially iron, is widely recognized, as are the difficulties of accurately quantifying the rates of trace element wet and dry deposition and their fractional solubility. This paper summarizes some of the recent progress in this field, particularly that driven by the GEOTRACES, and other, international research programmes. The utility and limitations of models used to estimate atmospheric deposition flux, for example, from the surface ocean distribution of tracers such as dissolved aluminium, are discussed and a relatively new technique for quantifying atmospheric deposition using the short-lived radionuclide beryllium-7 is highlighted. It is proposed that this field will advance more rapidly by using a multi-tracer approach, and that aerosol deposition models should be ground-truthed against observed aerosol concentration data. It is also important to improve our understanding of the mechanisms and rates that control the fractional solubility of these tracers. Aerosol provenance and chemistry (humidity, acidity and organic ligand characteristics) play important roles in governing tracer solubility. Many of these factors are likely to be influenced by changes in atmospheric composition in the future. Intercalibration exercises for aerosol chemistry and fractional solubility are an essential component of the GEOTRACES programme.This article is part of the themed issue 'Biological and climatic impacts of ocean trace element chemistry'.

How well can we quantify dust deposition to the ocean?

Deposition of continental mineral aerosols (dust) in the Eastern Tropical North Atlantic Ocean, between the coast of Africa and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, was estimated using several strategies based on the measurement of aerosols, trace metals dissolved in seawater, particulate material filtered from the water column, particles collected by sediment traps and sediments. Most of the data used in this synthesis involve samples collected during US GEOTRACES expeditions in 2010 and 2011, although some results from the literature are also used. Dust deposition generated by a global model serves as a reference against which the results from each observational strategy are compared. Observation-based dust fluxes disagree with one another by as much as two orders of magnitude, although most of the methods produce results that are consistent with the reference model to within a factor of 5. The large range of estimates indicates that further work is needed to reduce uncertainties associated with each method before it can be applied routinely to map dust deposition to the ocean. Calculated dust deposition using observational strategies thought to have the smallest uncertainties is lower than the reference model by a factor of 2-5, suggesting that the model may overestimate dust deposition in our study area.This article is part of the themed issue 'Biological and climatic impacts of ocean trace element chemistry'.

Dietary selenium intakes and plasma selenium concentrations of formula-fed and cow's milk-fed infants.

The plasma selenium concentrations of 57 infants 8 to 12 months of age were assessed using flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The infants ingested either cow's milk or whey-predominant milk-based infant formula as their primary beverage as part of a mixed diet for at least 3 months. The calculated mean +/- standard deviation (SD) daily dietary selenium intake of 26 infants fed cow's milk (34 +/- 13 micrograms), assessed by a 3-day diet record and/or a 24-hour diet recall, was significantly (p less than or equal to .001) greater than that of 31 formula-fed infants (22 +/- 11 micrograms). The mean +/- SD plasma selenium concentration of infants fed cow's milk (39 +/- 11 micrograms/L) was also significantly (p less than or equal to .05) greater than that of infants fed formula (31 +/- 12 micrograms/L). Both groups of infants ingested similar amounts of total energy; however, the infants fed cow's milk received more total protein and selenium and a greater percentage of protein and selenium from their primary beverage than did the infants receiving formula. Both groups of infants were consuming a mixed diet with similar sources of selenium. To examine the selenium status of infants as well as other individuals better, further analysis of foods is clearly needed to provide more information on dietary selenium sources. The influence of variables such as body size and ethnicity, intake, sources and forms of dietary protein, and dietary forms of selenium on plasma selenium concentrations must also be investigated.

Processes influencing rainfall deposition of mercury in Florida.

The primary goal of the Florida Atmospheric Mercury Study (FAMS) was to quantify the atmospheric deposition of Hg throughout Florida. Monthly integrated precipitation and weekly integrated particulate samples were collected at 10 sites in Florida for periods ranging from 2 to 5 yr. The monthly rainfall across the state and the concentrations of Hg in wet-only and bulk deposition increased by a factor of 2-3 during the summertime "wet season" (May-October). These parallel increases in rainfall amount and Hg concentration resulted in 5-8-fold increases in rainfall Hg deposition during the wet season. The annual volume-weighted Hg concentrations ranged from 14 +/- 2 to 16 +/- 2 ng/L across southern Florida, and the annual rainfall Hg fluxes ranged from 20 +/- 3 to 23 +/- 3 micrograms m-2 yr-1. The weekly integrated particulate Hg concentrations in southern Florida were low (4.9-9.3 pg/m3) and did not exhibit strong seasonal variability. Considering the pronounced seasonal pattern in rainfall Hg deposition, the relatively uniform summertime rainfall Hg concentrations, and the low concentrations of particulate Hg, we conclude that processes other than particulate Hg transport and scavenging govern rainfall Hg deposition in southern Florida. We hypothesize that long-range transport of reactive gaseous Hg (RGM) species coupled with strong convective thunderstorm activity during the summertime represents > 50% of the Hg deposition in southern Florida. Model calculations indicate that local anthropogenic particulate Hg and RGM emissions account for 30-46% of the summertime rainfall Hg deposition across the southern Florida peninsula.