Mirtazapine blood levels and antidepressant response.

OBJECTIVE: Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is an important tool for treatment optimisation. Its usefulness has recently been demonstrated for some first-line antidepressants; however, few studies have been reported on the relationship between blood levels of mirtazapine and its antidepressant effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between blood concentration of mirtazapine and antidepressant response. METHODS: 59 outpatients treated with mirtazapine for depression were recruited and followed up for three months in a naturalistic setting. Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-21 (HAMD-21) was administered at baseline, month 1, and month 3 to assess antidepressant response. Mirtazapine serum concentration was measured at steady state. Linear regression analysis and nonlinear least-squares regression were used to estimate association between serum concentration of mirtazapine and antidepressant response. RESULTS: Our results showed no overall association between serum concentration of mirtazapine and symptom improvement at month 1 and month 3. A marginally significantly higher serum concentration of mirtazapine was found in responders vs non-responders at month 3. CONCLUSIONS: The study suggests that serum concentration of mirtazapine is not strongly associated with the antidepressant efficacy of mirtazapine. This is probably attributed to its pharmacodynamic profile, even though higher blood levels seem to be marginally more effective.

Mirtazapine plasma levels association with response is mild and do not follow the same curve of other antidepressantsMirtazapine higher plasma levels may show some benefit in a subgroup of patientsTherapeutic drug monitoring may help during antidepressant treatment.

Humanin gene expression in subjects with Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Bradykinesia, tremor, rigidity and postural instability are the hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Non-motor symptoms including cognitive, behavioral, and neuropsychiatric changes, sensory and sleep disturbances that may precede the motor symptoms by years. The peculiar pathological features of PD are decreased dopaminergic neurons and dopamine levels in the substantia nigra pars compacta and pontine locus coeruleus. Humanin is produced by a small gene peptide, which is located in the mitochondria genome. Inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and altered transcription have been recognized as causative factors of PD. This evidence has prompted many researchers to focus on studying the functions of DNA and mitochondria. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate Humanin mRNA levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of PD subjects, compared with those in PBMCs of normal control (NC) subjects. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 220 participants, including 154 PD patients (57 females and 97 males; mean age 71.54 years, SD 7.8) and 66 CN (28 females and 38 males; mean age 70.54 years, SD 9.45) were enrolled for the qRT-PCR analysis. Increased Humanin mRNA levels were found in PD samples, compared to controls. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the present data confirm the tendency of mitochondria to overexpress mRNA in PD, which could be a cellular attempt to reduce apoptotic damage in PD subjects. Humanin might be useful as a marker for a better diagnosis of PD, and we cannot exclude that in the future it might also play a role on prognosis and in the possible therapies for PD.

Short-interval leg movements during sleep entail greater cardiac activation than periodic leg movements during sleep in restless legs syndrome patients.

Periodic leg movements during sleep (PLMS) are sequences of ≥4 motor events with intermovement intervals (IMI) of 10-90 s. PLMS are a supportive diagnostic criterion for restless legs syndrome (RLS) and entail cardiac activation, particularly when associated with arousal. RLS patients also over-express short-interval leg movements during sleep (SILMS), which have IMI <10 s and are organized mainly in sequences of two movements (doublets). We tested whether the cardiac activation associated with SILMS doublets differs from that associated with PLMS in a sample of 25 RLS patients. We analysed time-series of R-R intervals synchronized to the onset of SILMS doublets or PLMS that entailed an arousal during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. We assessed cardiac activation based on the R-R interval decrease with respect to baseline during NREM sleep without leg movements. We found that the duration of the R-R interval decrease with SILMS doublets was significantly longer than that with PLMS, whereas the maximal decrease in R-R interval was similar. Scoring SILMS in RLS patients may therefore be relevant from a cardiac autonomic perspective.

Case report: Applied behavior analysis in a case of anomic aphasia in post-acute myocardial infarction with cardiac arrest and brain hypoxia: results of tact-training.

Purpose: Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) tact-training was provided to an adult with post-stroke anomic aphasia, with the main purposes to improve naming of pictures, with a possible generalization to another different setting, through telehealth sessions. Method: The Multiple probe experimental design across behaviors was used. Two sets of stimuli were used (SET 1 and SET 2), including 60 laminated photos, belonging to three different categories for each set. Procedure included the baseline, the intervention phases (face-to-face and telehealth sessions), and the follow-up (1 month after the end of a tact training). Results: For both, SET 1 and SET 2, the mastery criterion (80% correct stimulus tacts, for three consecutive times, simultaneously for all categories) was achieved. No increased percentage of correct picture tacts was found for untrained items. At follow-up, the patient provided 70 to 100% correct responses. For both SET 1 and SET 2, telehealth did not modify the correct response trends. Conclusion: The results of our study seem to suggest that specific tact-training procedures might be successfully carried out in adult and elderly people with post-stroke aphasia. It also appears necessary to arrange protocols providing telehealth sessions, with benefits for both families and the health system.

Changes in time structure of periodic leg movements during sleep in restless legs syndrome: Effects of sex and age.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to check the hypothesis that in women with restless legs syndrome (RLS) different changes occur in periodic leg movements during sleep (PLMS) during the post-menopausal period (using >50 years as a proxy) than in men of the same age. METHODS: We recruited 36 untreated patients aged 18-50 years (19 men, median age 40 years, and 17 women, median age 37 years) while the remaining 67 were >50 years old (24 men, median age 66.6 years, and 43 women, median age 60.0 years). Leg movement activity during sleep was analyzed by means of an approach utilizing indexes especially suitable to assess leg movement periodicity. RESULTS: No significant difference was seen between men in the two age groups; conversely, in women, a clear and significant increase in Periodicity Index was observed in the older group, along with a decrease in isolated leg movements. In women, a clear age-related enhancement of PLMS was found in the intermovement interval graphs, especially in the 16-22 s range, which was more evident than that observed in men. The results remained unchanged also when they were replicated by selecting only subjects aged 18-45 years vs. those aged >55 years. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that assessing PLMS in women after menopause is clinically relevant because they are probably connected with the hormonal fluctuations of this period of life. Translationally, identifying and addressing PLMS in post-menopausal women is crucial for optimizing their sleep health and addressing potential health risks associated with sleep disturbances.

Exploring sex differences in periodic leg movements during sleep across the lifespan of patients with restless legs syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Restless legs syndrome (RLS) and periodic leg movements during sleep (PLMS) are prevalent sleep disorders with significant implications for health and well-being. While previous research has highlighted sex-related disparities in RLS and PLMS prevalence, comprehensive understanding of these differences across the lifespan remains limited. This study aims to explore sex differences in RLS and PLMS across diverse age groups, spanning ages 2 to over 80 years, and to investigate the underlying mechanisms influenced by sex hormones. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted on drug-free patients diagnosed with RLS, including 95 females (age range: 2-83.2 years) and 89 males (age range: 2-79.5 years). Polysomnographic recordings were analyzed to assess leg movement activity, including PLMS index and Periodicity index. RESULTS: A more rapid increase in PLMS index was observed in women starting before age 10, plateauing lower than men until around age 55. An increase in women occurred after 55, lasting over a decade, while in men, PLMS index continued to rise after 75. Conversely, Periodicity index displayed a simpler pattern, increasing progressively from prepuberty to around 35 in males and 45-50 in females. Females maintained a slightly higher Periodicity index than males for over a decade after this age. CONCLUSION: These findings underscore the complex interplay between sex hormones, age, and sleep disorders, highlighting the need for tailored approaches to diagnosis and management across diverse demographic cohorts. Further research is warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and develop targeted interventions to optimize sleep health outcomes.

Serum N-Glycan Profiling of Patients with Narcolepsy Type 1 Using LC-MS/MS.

The neurological condition known as narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) is an uncommon condition marked by extreme daytime sleepiness, cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hallucinations, disrupted nocturnal sleep, and low or undetectable levels of orexin in the CSF fluid. NT1 has been hypothesized to be an immunological disorder; its treatment is currently only symptomatic, and misdiagnosis is not uncommon. This study compares the N-glycome of NT1 patients with healthy controls in search of potential glycan biomarkers using LC-MS/MS. A total of 121 candidate N-glycans were identified, 55 of which were isomeric N-glycan structures and 65 were not. Seventeen N-glycan biomarker candidates showed significant differences between the NT1 and control cohorts. All of the candidate glycan biomarkers were isomeric except HexNAc6Hex7Fuc0NeuAc1 (6701) and HexNAc6Hex7Fuc1NeuAc2 (6712). Therefore, with isomeric and nonisomeric structures, a total of 20 candidate N-glycan biomarkers are reported in this study, and interestingly, all are either sialylated or sialylated-fucosylated and upregulated in NT1 relative to the control. The distribution levels of all the identified N-glycans show that the sialylated glycan type is the most abundant in NT1 and is majorly disialylated, although the trisialylated subtype is three-fold higher in NT1 compared to the healthy control. The first isomers of HexNAc5Hex6Fuc0NeuAc3 (5603), HexNAc6Hex7Fuc0NeuAc2 (6702), and HexNAc6Hex7Fuc1NeuAc4 (6714) expressed a high level of fold changes (FC) of 1.62, 2.19, and 2.98, respectively. These results suggest a different N-glycome profile of NT1 and a relationship between sialylated glycan isomers in NT1 disease development or progression. The revelation of N-glycan expression alterations in this study may improve NT1 diagnostic methods, understanding of NT1 pathology, and the development of new targeted therapeutics.

Targeting the adenosinergic system in restless legs syndrome: A pilot, "proof-of-concept" placebo-controlled TMS-based protocol.

Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) is a common sleep disorder characterized by an urge to move the legs that is responsive to movement (particularly during rest), periodic leg movements during sleep, and hyperarousal. Recent evidence suggests that the involvement of the adenosine system may establish a connection between dopamine and glutamate dysfunction in RLS. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive electrophysiological technique widely applied to explore brain electrophysiology and neurochemistry under different experimental conditions. In this pilot study protocol, we aim to investigate the effects of dipyridamole (a well-known enhancer of adenosinergic transmission) and caffeine (an adenosine receptor antagonist) on measures of cortical excitation and inhibition in response to TMS in patients with primary RLS. Initially, we will assess cortical excitability using both single- and paired-pulse TMS in patients with RLS. Then, based on the measures obtained, we will explore the effects of dipyridamole and caffeine, in comparison to placebo, on various TMS parameters related to cortical excitation and inhibition. Finally, we will evaluate the psycho-cognitive performance of RLS patients to screen them for cognitive impairment and/or mood-behavioral dysfunction, thus aiming to correlate psycho-cognitive findings with TMS data. Overall, this study protocol will be the first to shed lights on the neurophysiological mechanisms of RLS involving the modulation of the adenosine system, thus potentially providing a foundation for innovative "pharmaco-TMS"-based treatments. The distinctive TMS profile observed in RLS holds indeed the potential utility for both diagnosis and treatment, as well as for patient monitoring. As such, it can be considered a target for both novel pharmacological (i.e., drug) and non-pharmacological (e.g., neuromodulatory), "TMS-guided", interventions.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in primary sleep disorders.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a widely used non-invasive neuromodulatory technique. When applied in sleep medicine, the main hypothesis explaining its effects concerns the modulation of synaptic plasticity and the strength of connections between the brain areas involved in sleep disorders. Recently, there has been a significant increase in the publication of rTMS studies in primary sleep disorders. A multi-database-based search converges on the evidence that rTMS is safe and feasible in chronic insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS), restless legs syndrome (RLS), and sleep deprivation-related cognitive deficits, whereas limited or no data are available for narcolepsy, sleep bruxism, and REM sleep behavior disorder. Regarding efficacy, the stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex bilaterally, right parietal cortex, and dominant primary motor cortex (M1) in insomnia, as well as the stimulation of M1 leg area bilaterally, left primary somatosensory cortex, and left M1 in RLS reduced subjective symptoms and severity scale scores, with effects lasting for up to weeks; conversely, no relevant effect was observed in OSAS and narcolepsy. Nevertheless, several limitations especially regarding the stimulation protocols need to be considered. This review should be viewed as a step towards the further contribution of individually tailored neuromodulatory techniques for sleep disorders.

mRNA expression profiling of mitochondrial subunits in subjects with Parkinson's disease.

Introduction: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder caused by a progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons due to the accumulation of α-synuclein in the substantia nigra. Mitochondria are known to play a key role in cell respiratory function and bioenergetics. Indeed, mitochondrial dysfunction causes insufficient energy production required to satisfy the needs of several organs, especially the nervous system. However, the profiling of messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of mitochondrial subunits in PD has not been systematically investigated yet. Material and methods: We explored the mRNA expression of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encoded respiratory chain (RC) subunits in 43 PD patients and 43 normal controls (NC). Next generation sequencing analysis (NGS) was used and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay was used for confirmation of the NGS results. Results: All tested mitochondrial RC subunits were significantly over-expressed in subjects with PD compared to NC. In qRT-PCR the mean expression of all mitochondrial subunits had an expression level of at least 7 times compared to NC. Conclusions: The over-expression of mitochondrial subunits in PD subjects with respect to NC might be secondary to a degeneration-related alteration of the mitochondrial structure and/or dynamics, or to the occurrence of a compensatory mechanism. The study of specific mRNA by peripheral blood mononuclear cells may provide a further diagnostic frame for early detection PD patients.

LC-MS/MS Quantitation of HILIC-Enriched N-glycopeptides Derived from Low-Abundance Serum Glycoproteins in Patients with Narcolepsy Type 1.

Glycoproteomic analysis is always challenging because of low abundance and complex site-specific heterogeneity. Glycoproteins are involved in various biological processes such as cell signaling, adhesion, and cell-cell communication and may serve as potential biomarkers when analyzing different diseases. Here, we investigate glycoproteins in narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) disease, a form of narcolepsy characterized by cataplexy-the sudden onset of muscle paralysis that is typically triggered by intense emotions. In this study, 27 human blood serum samples were analyzed, 16 from NT1 patients and 11 from healthy individuals serving as controls. We quantified hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC)-enriched glycopeptides from low-abundance serum samples of controls and NT1 patients via LC-MS/MS. Twenty-eight unique N-glycopeptides showed significant changes between the two studied groups. The sialylated N-glycopeptide structures LPTQNITFQTESSVAEQEAEFQSPK HexNAc6, Hex3, Neu5Ac2 (derived from the ITIH4 protein) and the structure IVLDPSGSMNIYLVLDGSDSIGASNFTGAK HexNAc5, Hex4, Fuc1 (derived from the CFB protein), with p values of 0.008 and 0.01, respectively, were elevated in NT1 samples compared with controls. In addition, the N-glycopeptide protein sources Ceruloplasmin, Complement factor B, and ITH4 were observed to play an important role in the complement activation and acute-phase response signaling pathways. This may explain the possible association between the biomarkers and pathophysiological effects.

LC-MS/MS-Based Proteomics Approach for the Identification of Candidate Serum Biomarkers in Patients with Narcolepsy Type 1.

Narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) is the most common type of narcolepsy known to be caused by the loss of specific neurons responsible for producing peptide neurotransmitters (orexins/hypocretins), resulting in a sleep-wake cycle disorder. It is characterized by its association with cataplexy and abnormalities in rapid eye movement. To date, no cure has been established for this life-threatening condition. Misdiagnosis of NT1 is also quite common, although it is not exceedingly rare. Therefore, successfully identifying candidate serum biomarkers for NT1 would be a head start for accurate diagnosis and development of therapeutics for this disorder. This study aims to identify such potential serum biomarkers. A depletion protocol was employed for 27 human serum samples (16 NT1 and 11 healthy controls), followed by applying LC-MS/MS bottom-up proteomics analysis, then LC-PRM-MS for validation. The comparison of the proteome profiles of the low-abundant proteins in the samples was then investigated based on age, sex, sample groups, and the presence of the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) DQB1*0602 allele. The results were tracked to gene expression studies as well as system biology to identify key proteins and understand their relationship in the pathogenesis of NT1. Our results revealed 36 proteins significantly and differentially expressed. Among the impaired pathways and bioprocesses, the complement activation pathway is impaired by six of the differentially expressed proteins (DEPs). They are coded by the genes C2, CFB, C5, C1R, C1S, and MASP1, while 11 DEPs are involved in Acute Phase Response Signaling (APRS), which are coded by the genes FN1, AMBP, APOH, CFB, CP, ITIH2, C5, C2, F2, C1, and ITIH4. The combined AUCs of the downregulated and upregulated DEPs are 0.95 and 0.76, respectively. Overall, this study reveals potential serum-protein biomarkers of NT1 and explains the possible correlation between the biomarkers and pathophysiological effects, as well as important biochemical pathways involved in NT1.

A Next-Generation Sequencing Study in a Cohort of Sicilian Patients with Parkinson's Disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multisystem and multifactorial disorder and, therefore, the application of modern genetic techniques may assist in unraveling its complex pathophysiology. We conducted a clinical-demographic evaluation of 126 patients with PD, all of whom were Caucasian and of Sicilian ancestry. DNA was extracted from the peripheral blood for each patient, followed by sequencing using a Next-Generation Sequencing system. This system was based on a custom gene panel comprising 162 genes. The sample underwent further filtering, taking into account the allele frequencies of genetic variants, their presence in the Human Gene Mutation Database, and their association in the literature with PD or other movement/neurodegenerative disorders. The largest number of variants was identified in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene. However, variants in other genes, such as acid beta-glucosidase (GBA), DNA polymerase gamma catalytic subunit (POLG), and parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (PRKN), were also discovered. Interestingly, some of these variants had not been previously associated with PD. Enhancing our understanding of the genetic basis of PD and identifying new variants possibly linked to the disease will contribute to improved diagnostic accuracy, therapeutic developments, and prognostic insights for affected individuals.

Reduced Intracortical Facilitation to TMS in Both Isolated REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) and Early Parkinson's Disease with RBD.

BACKGROUND: a reduced intracortical facilitation (ICF), a transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) measure largely mediated by glutamatergic neurotransmission, was observed in subjects affected by isolated REM sleep behavior disorder (iRBD). However, direct comparison between iRBD and Parkinson's disease (PD) with RBD is currently lacking. METHODS: resting motor threshold, contralateral cortical silent period, amplitude and latency of motor evoked potentials, short-interval intracortical inhibition, and intracortical facilitation (ICF) were recorded from 15 drug-naïve iRBD patients, 15 drug-naïve PD with RBD patients, and 15 healthy participants from the right First Dorsal Interosseous muscle. REM sleep atonia index (RAI), Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS), and Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) were assessed. RESULTS: Groups were similar for sex, age, education, and patients for RBD duration and RAI. Neurological examination, MMSE, ESS, and GDS were normal in iRBD patients and controls; ESS scored worse in PD patients, but with no difference between groups at post hoc analysis. Compared to controls, both patient groups exhibited a significantly decreased ICF, without difference between them. CONCLUSIONS: iRBD and PD with RBD shared a reduced ICF, thus suggesting the involvement of glutamatergic transmission both in subjects at risk for degeneration and in those with an overt α-synucleinopathy.

Cognitive Impairment in Inpatients with Prurigo Nodularis and Psychiatric Comorbidities.

BACKGROUND: Prurigo nodularis (PN) is a chronic refractory itchy dermatosis. Although psychiatric comorbidity is known, research in cognitive impairment is lacking. We evaluated the occurrence and types of cognitive impairment in a series of inpatients with PN. METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review of all the patients with PN admitted to a referral neurological institute from September 2018 to March 2021. Any neurological and psychiatric disorder, along with neuroactive drugs taken, were concomitantly assessed. RESULTS: A total of 16 patients with PN (median age: 70 years, two males) were selected from a total of 1806 hospital admissions. Most of them had a neurodegenerative cognitive disorder, from mild cognitive impairment (8) to Alzheimer's disease (1), followed by mixed disorder (degenerative and vascular) in six and vascular dementia in one. Comorbid psychiatric diseases (anxiety and depression) were more common than either individual condition, followed by bipolar disorder, whereas two patients did not show psychiatric manifestations. Most patients were on combined treatment with benzodiazepines and antidepressants. CONCLUSION: Cognitive impairment can be observed in PN. In addition to screening for psychiatric comorbidity and initiating appropriate treatment or referral, clinicians may also consider the presence of cognitive impairment in PN of both degenerative and vascular origin.

Increased Serum Prolactin and Excessive Daytime Sleepiness: An Attempt of Proof-of-Concept Study.

The objectives of this study were: (1) to identify subjects with hyperprolactinemia in a clinical sample of patients; (2) to compare the neurologic, psychiatric, and sleep conditions found in patients subgrouped by excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) and hyperprolactinemia; and (3) to identify patients with hyperprolactinemia and EDS not supported by the presence of any other neurologic, psychiatric, or sleep disorder, or substance/medication use. A retrospective chart review of inpatients was carried out in order to identify all patients in whom the prolactin (PRL) serum levels were determined. A total of 130 subjects were retrieved: 55 had increased levels of PRL, while the remaining 75 participants had normal PRL levels. EDS was reported by 32 (58.2%) participants with increased PRL and 34 (45.3%) with normal PRL. Obstructive sleep apnea or other sleep or neurologic/psychiatric conditions could explain EDS in all participants with normal PRL. Among subjects with increased PRL, eight had no other neurologic/psychiatric or sleep disorder (or drug) potentially causing EDS; these participants, at polysomnography, had time in bed, sleep period time, and total sleep time longer than those with EDS associated to another condition. These findings can be considered as a preliminary indication of a role of hyperprolactinemia in EDS and represent a basis for future controlled studies able to test this hypothesis in a reliable, objective, and methodologically more appropriate way.

Facilitatory/inhibitory intracortical imbalance in REM sleep behavior disorder: early electrophysiological marker of neurodegeneration?

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Previous studies found an early impairment of the short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and intracortical facilitation (ICF) to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in Parkinson's disease. However, very little is known on the TMS correlates of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD), which can precede the onset of a α-synucleinopathy. METHODS: The following TMS measures were obtained from 14 de novo patients with isolated RBD and 14 age-matched healthy controls: resting motor threshold, cortical silent period, latency and amplitude of the motor evoked potentials, SICI, and ICF. A cognitive screening and a quantification of subjective sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale [ESS]) and depressive symptoms were also performed. RESULTS: Neurological examination, global cognitive functioning, and mood status were normal in all participants. ESS score was higher in patients, although not suggestive of diurnal sleepiness. Compared to controls, patients exhibited a significant decrease of ICF (median 0.8, range 0.5-1.4 vs. 1.9, range 1.4-2.3; p < 0.01) and a clear trend, though not significant, towards a reduction of SICI (median 0.55, range 0.1-1.4 vs. 0.25, range 0.1-0.3), with a large effect size (Cohen's d: -0.848). REM Sleep Atonia Index significantly correlated with SICI. CONCLUSIONS: In still asymptomatic patients for a parkinsonian syndrome or neurodegenerative disorder, changes of ICF and, to a lesser extent, SICI (which are largely mediated by glutamatergic and GABAergic transmission, respectively) might precede the onset of a future neurodegeneration. SICI was correlated with the muscle tone alteration, possibly supporting the proposed RBD model of retrograde influence on the cortex from the brainstem.

Subclinical abnormal EMG activation of the gastrocnemii during gait analysis in restless legs syndrome: a preliminary report in 13 patients.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to detect the eventual presence of a minor voluntary motor involvement in restless legs syndrome (RLS), not detectable clinically, which might be observed by means of a sophisticated instrumental analysis of movement, such as gait analysis. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Gait analysis was performed and surface EMG activity was recorded in 13 RLS patients and 8 normal controls from 8 muscles: tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius lateralis, gastrocnemius medialis, and soleus in both legs. RESULTS: Ten out of the 13 RLS patients and none of the normal control group showed a mild abnormality of the EMG activation of the gastrocnemius muscles during gait which, however, had no detectable effects on its kinematics. CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results might be interpreted as the effect of an impaired supraspinal dopaminergic control with possible action on spinal structures involved in the control of gait. If confirmed in future studies, this mild EMG abnormality might constitute an additional supportive feature for the diagnosis of RLS in difficult cases.

Distractibility and Alzheimer disease: the "neglected" phenomenon.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) might have bilateral attentional disorders, such as a reduced spatial attentional window, due to pathological changes in regions important for mediating spatial attention. AD patients may also be highly distractible with the presentation of unilateral novel stimuli or be impaired at disengaging and reallocating their attention with imperative stimuli. This study sought to test these hypotheses by asking AD patients and normal control subjects to bisect 72 horizontal lines of 3 different lengths in three conditions: no lateral stimuli, novel right or left lateral stimuli ('bottom-up'), and imperative left or right lateral stimuli ('top-down'). Regarding the bottom-up condition, no group differences emerged, but the AD patients had a greater rightward bias with short lines and a leftward bias with long lines, independent of distracting stimuli. In the top-down condition, when the patients with AD, versus controls, were presented with imperative stimuli on their left side, they demonstrated a greater attentional bias than when presented with right-sided stimuli. Thus AD patients have a reduced spatial attentional window and while they are not highly distracted by novel stimuli, after allocating their attention to left sided stimuli, they have a reduced capacity to spatially re-allocate their attention.

Age-related changes in periodic leg movements during sleep in patients with restless legs syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate and statistically describe the age-related changes in leg movements (LMs) during sleep in a large group of subjects with restless legs syndrome (RLS). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: One hundred eight untreated patients affected by idiopathic RLS were included in this study (mean age 52.0years, min 7.5, max 83.2years). The time structure of their polysomnographically recorded LMs was analyzed using an approach particularly appropriate for assessing their quantity, periodicity, and distribution during the night. RESULTS: Periodic LMs during sleep (PLMS) increased in number gradually in the age groups. Their typical interval was approximately 24-28s before the age of 55years but at approximately 14-16s after the age of 65years. PLMS index reached a plateau at 15-25years of age and remained stable up to 65years; after this age, it showed an important increase. Periodicity index (PI) increased progressively up to the age of 35years and then remained stable up to the age of 85years. No correlation was found between PLMS index and PI. The number of PLMS per hour of sleep declined through the night in subjects aged 15-75years; after this age, PLMS tended to be equally distributed across the entire night. CONCLUSIONS: The use of three main parameters derived from the analysis of leg motor activity during sleep in RLS patients (PLMS index, PI and PLMS time distribution) is capable of providing us with important information about the age-related changes of PLMS in this condition, which can be used in the evaluation of the sleep motor patterns in these subjects.