Periodontitis: etiology, conventional treatments, and emerging bacteriophage and predatory bacteria therapies.

Inflammatory periodontal diseases associated with the accumulation of dental biofilm, such as gingivitis and periodontitis, are very common and pose clinical problems for clinicians and patients. Gingivitis is a mild form of gum disease and when treated quickly and properly is completely reversible. Periodontitis is an advanced and irreversible disease of the periodontium with periods of exacerbations, progressions and remission. Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory condition that damages the tissues supporting the tooth in its socket, i.e., the gums, periodontal ligaments, root cementum and bone. Periodontal inflammation is most commonly triggered by bacteria present in excessive accumulations of dental plaque (biofilm) on tooth surfaces. This disease is driven by disproportionate host inflammatory immune responses induced by imbalance in the composition of oral bacteria and changes in their metabolic activities. This microbial dysbiosis favors the establishment of inflammatory conditions and ultimately results in the destruction of tooth-supporting tissues. Apart microbial shift and host inflammatory response, environmental factors and genetics are also important in etiology In addition to oral tissues destruction, periodontal diseases can also result in significant systemic complications. Conventional methods of periodontal disease treatment (improving oral hygiene, dental biofilm control, mechanical plaque removal, using local or systemic antimicrobial agents) are not fully effective. All this prompts the search for new methods of therapy. Advanced periodontitis with multiple abscesses is often treated with antibiotics, such as amoxicillin, tetracycline, doxycycline, minocycline, clindamycin, or combined therapy of amoxicillin with metronidazole. However, due to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, treatment does not always achieve the desired therapeutic effect. This review summarizes pathogenesis, current approaches in treatment, limitations of therapy and the current state of research on the possibility of application of bacteriophages and predatory bacteria to combat bacteria responsible for periodontitis. We present the current landscape of potential applications for alternative therapies for periodontitis based on phages and bacteria, and highlight the gaps in existing knowledge that need to be addressed before clinical trials utilizing these therapeutic strategies can be seriously considered.

[Application of microorganisms as delivery vehicles in cancer gene therapies]. / Zastosowanie mikroorganizmów jako wektorów w antynowotworowych terapiach genowych.

Gene therapy represents a potential new strategy for cancer treatment. In order to deliver a transgene into target tumor cells, a vector system is required. To date, most of the cancer therapies are based on the use of different viral vectors. However, bacteria such as Salmonella, Clostridium or non-pathogenic Bifidobacterium can selectively accumulate in tumors in vivo what renders them useful for cancer gene therapy vectors. Although the mechanism of DNA transfer from bacteria to mammalian cells is not completely understood their potential to deliver therapeutic genes into tumor cells have been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. The review presents recent achievements in bacteria-mediated cancer gene therapy.

Campylobacter jejuni dsb gene expression is regulated by iron in a Fur-dependent manner and by a translational coupling mechanism.

BACKGROUND: Many bacterial extracytoplasmic proteins are stabilized by intramolecular disulfide bridges that are formed post-translationally between their cysteine residues. This protein modification plays an important role in bacterial pathogenesis, and is facilitated by the Dsb (disulfide bond) family of the redox proteins. These proteins function in two parallel pathways in the periplasmic space: an oxidation pathway and an isomerization pathway. The Dsb oxidative pathway in Campylobacter jejuni is more complex than the one in the laboratory E. coli K-12 strain. RESULTS: In the C. jejuni 81-176 genome, the dsb genes of the oxidative pathway are arranged in three transcriptional units: dsbA2-dsbB-astA, dsbA1 and dba-dsbI. Their transcription responds to an environmental stimulus - iron availability - and is regulated in a Fur-dependent manner. Fur involvement in dsb gene regulation was proven by a reporter gene study in a C. jejuni wild type strain and its isogenic fur mutant. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) confirmed that analyzed genes are members of the Fur regulon but each of them is regulated by a disparate mechanism, and both the iron-free and the iron-complexed Fur are able to bind in vitro to the C. jejuni promoter regions. This study led to identification of a new iron- and Fur-regulated promoter that drives dsbA1 gene expression in an indirect way. Moreover, the present work documents that synthesis of DsbI oxidoreductase is controlled by the mechanism of translational coupling. The importance of a secondary dba-dsbI mRNA structure for dsbI mRNA translation was verified by estimating individual dsbI gene expression from its own promoter. CONCLUSIONS: The present work shows that iron concentration is a significant factor in dsb gene transcription. These results support the concept that iron concentration - also through its influence on dsb gene expression - might control the abundance of extracytoplasmic proteins during different stages of infection. Our work further shows that synthesis of the DsbI membrane oxidoreductase is controlled by a translational coupling mechanism. The dba expression is not only essential for the translation of the downstream dsbI gene, but also Dba protein that is produced might regulate the activity and/or stability of DsbI.

In Search of Spectroscopic Signatures of Periodontitis: A SERS-Based Magnetomicrofluidic Sensor for Detection of Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans.

Recently, Porphyromonas gingivalis, the keystone pathogen implicated in the development of gum disease (periodontitis), was detected in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients, opening up a fascinating possibility that it is also involved in the pathobiology of this neurodegenerative illness. To verify this hypothesis, an unbiased, specific, and sensitive method to detect this pathogen in biological specimens is needed. To this end, our interdisciplinary studies demonstrate that P. gingivalis can be easily identified by surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). Moreover, based on SERS measurements, P. gingivalis can be distinguished from another common periodontal pathogen, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and also from ubiquitous oral Streptococcus spp. The results were confirmed by principal component analysis (PCA). Furthermore, we have shown that different P. gingivalis and A. actinomycetemcomitans strains can easily adsorb to silver-coated magnetic nanoparticles (Fe2O3@AgNPs). Thus, it is possible to magnetically separate investigated bacteria from other components of a specimen using the microfluidic chip. To obtain additional enhancement of the Raman signal, the NPs adsorbed to bacterial cells were magnetically attracted to the Si/Ag SERS platform. Afterward, the SERS spectra could be recorded. Such a time-saving procedure can be very helpful in rapid medical diagnostics and thus in starting the appropriate pharmacological therapy to prevent the development of periodontitis and associated comorbidities, e.g., Alzheimer's disease.

Enhancement of direct electron transfer in graphene bioelectrodes containing novel cytochrome c553 variants with optimized heme orientation.

The highly efficient bioelectrodes based on single layer graphene (SLG) functionalized with pyrene self-assembled monolayer and novel cytochromec553(cytc553)peptide linker variants were rationally designed to optimize the direct electron transfer (DET) between SLG and the heme group of cyt. Through a combination of photoelectrochemical and quantum mechanical (QM/MM) approaches we show that the specific amino acid sequence of a short peptide genetically inserted between the cytc553holoprotein and thesurface anchoring C-terminal His6-tag plays a crucial role in ensuring the optimal orientation and distance of the heme group with respect to the SLG surface. Consequently, efficient DET occurring between graphene and cyt c553 leads to a 20-fold enhancement of the cathodic photocurrent output compared to the previously reported devices of a similar type. The QM/MM modeling implies that a perpendicular or parallel orientation of the heme group with respect to the SLG surface is detrimental to DET, whereas the tilted orientation favors the cathodic photocurrent generation. Our work confirms the possibility of fine-tuning the electronic communication within complex bio-organic nanoarchitectures and interfaces due to optimization of the tilt angle of the heme group, its distance from the SLG surface and optimal HOMO/LUMO levels of the interacting redox centers.

PorZ, an Essential Component of the Type IX Secretion System of Porphyromonas gingivalis, Delivers Anionic Lipopolysaccharide to the PorU Sortase for Transpeptidase Processing of T9SS Cargo Proteins.

Cargo proteins of the type IX secretion system (T9SS) in human pathogens from the Bacteroidetes phylum invariably possess a conserved C-terminal domain (CTD) that functions as a signal for outer membrane (OM) translocation. In Porphyromonas gingivalis, the CTD of cargos is cleaved off after translocation, and anionic lipopolysaccharide (A-LPS) is attached. This transpeptidase reaction anchors secreted proteins to the OM. PorZ, a cell surface-associated protein, is an essential component of the T9SS whose function was previously unknown. We recently solved the crystal structure of PorZ and found that it consists of two ß-propeller moieties, followed by a CTD. In this study, we performed structure-based modeling, suggesting that PorZ is a carbohydrate-binding protein. Indeed, we found that recombinant PorZ specifically binds A-LPS in vitro Binding was blocked by monoclonal antibodies that specifically react with a phosphorylated branched mannan in the anionic polysaccharide (A-PS) component of A-LPS, but not with the core oligosaccharide or the lipid A endotoxin. Examination of A-LPS derived from a cohort of mutants producing various truncations of A-PS confirmed that the phosphorylated branched mannan is indeed the PorZ ligand. Moreover, purified recombinant PorZ interacted with the PorU sortase in an A-LPS-dependent manner. This interaction on the cell surface is crucial for the function of the "attachment complex" composed of PorU, PorZ, and the integral OM ß-barrel proteins PorV and PorQ, which is involved in posttranslational modification and retention of T9SS cargos on the bacterial surface.IMPORTANCE Bacteria have evolved multiple systems to transport effector proteins to their surface or into the surrounding milieu. These proteins have a wide range of functions, including attachment, motility, nutrient acquisition, and toxicity in the host. Porphyromonas gingivalis, the human pathogen responsible for severe gum diseases (periodontitis), uses a recently characterized type IX secretion system (T9SS) to translocate and anchor secreted virulence effectors to the cell surface. Anchorage is facilitated by sortase, an enzyme that covalently attaches T9SS cargo proteins to a unique anionic lipopolysaccharide (A-LPS) moiety of P. gingivalis Here, we show that the T9SS component PorZ interacts with sortase and specifically binds A-LPS. Binding is mediated by a phosphorylated branched mannan repeat in A-LPS polysaccharide. A-LPS-bound PorZ interacts with sortase with significantly higher affinity, facilitating modification of cargo proteins by the cell surface attachment complex of the T9SS.

Porphyromonas gingivalis genes conferring fitness in a tobacco-rich environment.

Smokers are more likely than non-smokers to harbour Porphyromonas gingivalis, they are more susceptible to destructive periodontal disease and smokers may, ultimately, benefit from tobacco-specific preventive and treatment strategies. A Mariner transposon insertion library for P. gingivalis ATCC 33277 was exploited to define 256 genes as essential for P. gingivalis survival in a tobacco-rich environment. Genes whose products play roles in protein transport and catabolism, nicotinamide processing, protection against oxidative stress, drug resistance, and transcriptional regulation have all been identified as essential for CSE survival. Many of these tobacco-essential genes are also requisite for epithelial colonization and abscess formation, suggestive of a core stress-related P. gingivalis genome. Single-gene deletions in several of the TnSeq-implicated genes led to significantly reduced P. gingivalis fitness upon competition with the parent strain, under conditions of cigarette smoke extract-induced stress (1,000 ng/ml nicotine equivalents). This study identifies, for the first time, a subset of P. gingivalis genes required for surviving the plethora of insults present in cigarette smoke. Such conditionally essential genes may delineate bacterial persistence strategies and represent novel therapeutic foci for the prevention of P. gingivalis infection and related diseases in smokers and in general.

AAN82231 protein from uropathogenic E. coli CFT073 is a close paralog of DsbB enzymes and does not belong to the DsbI family.

Dsb proteins control the formation and rearrangement of disulfide bonds during the folding of membrane and exported proteins. DsbA is an oxidant that catalyzes formation of disulfide bonds in newly synthesized, and yet unfolded proteins. In order to act catalytically again, it has to be reoxidized by a transmembrane protein DsbB characterized by two pairs of disulfides. DsbB is related to another protein family DsbI, characterized by the presence of only one disulfide, and an additional C-terminal beta-propeller domain. The protein AAN82231 from E. coli strain CFT073 has been recently described as a new member of the DsbI family (Grimshaw et al., 2008). It was found that AAN82231 forms a functional redox pair with DsbL--a newly described DsbA-like protein. Here, we report that AAN82231 shares no characteristic features with the DsbI proteins. Instead, according to phylogenetic analyses AAN82231 clearly belongs to another, previously described subfamily of DsbB paralogs. To facilitate classification of DsbB and DsbI homologs, we propose a new nomenclature system and present an updated phylogenetic analysis of the DsbB superfamily, which comprises the following families: "orthodox" DsbB, its paralogs now named DsbB2 (including AAN82231), DsbI and two groups of so far uncharacterized DsbB paralogs termed DsbB3 and DsbB4. We have also developed a web server dedicated to phylogenetic assignment of DsbB/DsbI candidate proteins that will be identified in the future.

The role of Dsb proteins of Gram-negative bacteria in the process of pathogenesis.

Tertiary and quaternary structures of extracytoplasmic proteins containing more than one cysteine residue often require introduction of disulfide bonds. This process takes place in an oxidative environment, such as the periplasm of Gram-negative bacteria, and is catalyzed by Dsb (disulfide bond formation) proteins. Mutations in dsb genes influence the conformation and stability of many extracytoplasmic proteins. Thus, many pathogens become partially or fully attenuated due to improper folding of proteins that act as virulence factors. This review summarizes the current knowledge on Dsb proteins and their effect on the pathogenicity of Gram-negative bacteria. The potential application of Dsb proteins in biotechnology is also discussed.

Influence of Environmental and Genetic Factors on Proteomic Profiling of Outer Membrane Vesicles from Campylobacter jejuni.

The proteomes of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) secreted by C. jejuni 81-176 strain, which was exposed to oxygen or antibiotic stress (polymyxin B), were characterized. We also assessed the OMVs production and their content in two mutated strains - ∆dsbI and ∆htrA. OMVs production was significantly increased under the polymyxin B stress and remained unaltered in all other variants. Interestingly, the qualitative load of OMVs was constant regardless of the stress conditions or genetic background. However, certain proteins exhibited notable quantitative changes, ranging from 4-fold decrease to 10-fold increase. Up- or downregulated proteins (e.g. major outer membrane protein porA, iron ABC transporter, serine protease- htrA, 60 kDa chaperonin-groL, enolase) represented various cell compartments (cytoplasm, periplasm, and membrane) and exhibited various functions; nevertheless, one common group was noted that consisted of components of flagellar apparatus, i.e., FlaA/B, FlgC/E, which were mostly upregulated. Some of these proteins are the putative substrates of DsbI protein. Further investigation of the regulation of C. jejuni OMVs composition and their role in virulence will allow a better understanding of the infectious process of C. jejuni.The proteomes of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) secreted by C. jejuni 81­176 strain, which was exposed to oxygen or antibiotic stress (polymyxin B), were characterized. We also assessed the OMVs production and their content in two mutated strains ­ ∆dsbI and ∆htrA. OMVs production was significantly increased under the polymyxin B stress and remained unaltered in all other variants. Interestingly, the qualitative load of OMVs was constant regardless of the stress conditions or genetic background. However, certain proteins exhibited notable quantitative changes, ranging from 4-fold decrease to 10-fold increase. Up- or downregulated proteins (e.g. major outer membrane protein porA, iron ABC transporter, serine protease- htrA, 60 kDa chaperonin-groL, enolase) represented various cell compartments (cytoplasm, periplasm, and membrane) and exhibited various functions; nevertheless, one common group was noted that consisted of components of flagellar apparatus, i.e., FlaA/B, FlgC/E, which were mostly upregulated. Some of these proteins are the putative substrates of DsbI protein. Further investigation of the regulation of C. jejuni OMVs composition and their role in virulence will allow a better understanding of the infectious process of C. jejuni.

Structural determinants of inhibition of Porphyromonas gingivalis gingipain K by KYT-36, a potent, selective, and bioavailable peptidase inhibitor.

Porphyromonas gingivalis is a member of the dysbiotic oral microbiome and a "keystone pathogen" that causes severe periodontal disease, which is among the most prevalent infectious diseases. Part of the virulence factors secreted by P. gingivalis are the essential cysteine peptidases gingipain K (Kgp) and R (RgpA and RgpB), which account for 85% of the extracellular proteolytic activity of the pathogen and are thus prime targets for inhibition. We report the high-resolution (1.20 Å) complex structure of Kgp with KYT-36, a peptide-derived, potent, bioavailable and highly selective inhibitor, which is widely used for studies in vitro, in cells and in vivo. Sub-nanomolar inhibition of Kgp is achieved by tight binding to the active-site cleft, which is covered for its sub-sites S3 through S1' under establishment of nine hydrophobic interactions, 14 hydrogen bonds and one salt bridge. In addition, an inhibitor carbonyl carbon that mimics the scissile carbonyl of substrates is pyramidalized and just 2.02 Å away from the catalytic nucleophile of Kgp, C477Sγ. Thus, the crystal structure emulates a reaction intermediate of the first nucleophilic attack during catalysis of cysteine peptidases. The present study sets the pace for the development of tailored next-generation drugs to tackle P. gingivalis.

The Type IX Secretion System (T9SS): Highlights and Recent Insights into Its Structure and Function.

Protein secretion systems are vital for prokaryotic life, as they enable bacteria to acquire nutrients, communicate with other species, defend against biological and chemical agents, and facilitate disease through the delivery of virulence factors. In this review, we will focus on the recently discovered type IX secretion system (T9SS), a complex translocon found only in some species of the Bacteroidetes phylum. T9SS plays two roles, depending on the lifestyle of the bacteria. It provides either a means of movement (called gliding motility) for peace-loving environmental bacteria or a weapon for pathogens. The best-studied members of these two groups are Flavobacterium johnsoniae, a commensal microorganism often found in water and soil, and Porphyromonas gingivalis, a human oral pathogen that is a major causative agent of periodontitis. In P. gingivalis and some other periodontopathogens, T9SS translocates proteins, especially virulence factors, across the outer membrane (OM). Proteins destined for secretion bear a conserved C-terminal domain (CTD) that directs the cargo to the OM translocon. At least 18 proteins are involved in this still enigmatic process, with some engaged in the post-translational modification of T9SS cargo proteins. Upon translocation across the OM, the CTD is removed by a protease with sortase-like activity and an anionic LPS is attached to the newly formed C-terminus. As a result, a cargo protein could be secreted into the extracellular milieu or covalently attached to the bacterial surface. T9SS is regulated by a two-component system; however, the precise environmental signal that triggers it has not been identified. Exploring unknown systems contributing to bacterial virulence is exciting, as it may eventually lead to new therapeutic strategies. During the past decade, the major components of T9SS were identified, as well as hints suggesting the possible mechanism of action. In addition, the list of characterized cargo proteins is constantly growing. The actual structure of the translocon, situated in the OM of bacteria, remains the least explored area; however, new technical approaches and increasing scientific attention have resulted in a growing body of data. Therefore, we present a compact up-to-date review of this topic.

Engineering of Helicobacter pylori Dimeric Oxidoreductase DsbK (HP0231).

The formation of disulfide bonds that are catalyzed by proteins of the Dsb (disulfide bond) family is crucial for the correct folding of many extracytoplasmic proteins. Thus, this formation plays an essential, pivotal role in the assembly of many virulence factors. The Helicobacter pylori disulfide bond-forming system is uncomplicated compared to the best-characterized Escherichia coli Dsb pathways. It possesses only two extracytoplasmic Dsb proteins named HP0377 and HP0231. As previously shown, HP0377 is a reductase involved in the process of cytochrome c maturation. Additionally, it also possesses disulfide isomerase activity. HP0231 was the first periplasmic dimeric oxidoreductase involved in disulfide generation to be described. Although HP0231 function is critical for oxidative protein folding, its structure resembles that of dimeric EcDsbG, which does not confer this activity. However, the HP0231 catalytic motifs (CXXC and the so-called cis-Pro loop) are identical to that of monomeric EcDsbA. To understand the functioning of HP0231, we decided to study the relations between its sequence, structure and activity through an extensive analysis of various HP0231 point mutants, using in vivo and in vitro strategies. Our work shows the crucial role of the cis-Pro loop, as changing valine to threonine in this motif completely abolishes the protein function in vivo. Functioning of HP0231 is conditioned by the combination of CXXC and the cis-Pro loop, as replacing the HP0231 CXXC motif by the motif from EcDsbG or EcDsbC results in bifunctional protein, at least in E. coli. We also showed that the dimerization domain of HP0231 ensures contact with its substrates. Moreover, the activity of this oxidase is independent on the structure of the catalytic domain. Finally, we showed that HP0231 chaperone activity is independent of its redox function.

Structural and functional probing of PorZ, an essential bacterial surface component of the type-IX secretion system of human oral-microbiomic Porphyromonas gingivalis.

Porphyromonas gingivalis is a member of the human oral microbiome abundant in dysbiosis and implicated in the pathogenesis of periodontal (gum) disease. It employs a newly described type-IX secretion system (T9SS) for secretion of virulence factors. Cargo proteins destined for secretion through T9SS carry a recognition signal in the conserved C-terminal domain (CTD), which is removed by sortase PorU during translocation. Here, we identified a novel component of T9SS, PorZ, which is essential for surface exposure of PorU and posttranslational modification of T9SS cargo proteins. These include maturation of enzyme precursors, CTD removal and attachment of anionic lipopolysaccharide for anchorage in the outer membrane. The crystal structure of PorZ revealed two ß-propeller domains and a C-terminal ß-sandwich domain, which conforms to the canonical CTD architecture. We further documented that PorZ is itself transported to the cell surface via T9SS as a full-length protein with its CTD intact, independently of the presence or activity of PorU. Taken together, our results shed light on the architecture and possible function of a novel component of the T9SS. Knowledge of how T9SS operates will contribute to our understanding of protein secretion as part of host-microbiome interactions by dysbiotic members of the human oral cavity.

Functional and evolutionary analyses of Helicobacter pylori HP0231 (DsbK) protein with strong oxidative and chaperone activity characterized by a highly diverged dimerization domain.

Helicobacter pylori does not encode the classical DsbA/DsbB oxidoreductases that are crucial for oxidative folding of extracytoplasmic proteins. Instead, this microorganism encodes an untypical two proteins playing a role in disulfide bond formation - periplasmic HP0231, which structure resembles that of EcDsbC/DsbG, and its redox partner, a membrane protein HpDsbI (HP0595) with a ß-propeller structure. The aim of presented work was to assess relations between HP0231 structure and function. We showed that HP0231 is most closely related evolutionarily to the catalytic domain of DsbG, even though it possesses a catalytic motif typical for canonical DsbA proteins. Similarly, the highly diverged N-terminal dimerization domain is homologous to the dimerization domain of DsbG. To better understand the functioning of this atypical oxidoreductase, we examined its activity using in vivo and in vitro experiments. We found that HP0231 exhibits oxidizing and chaperone activities but no isomerizing activity, even though H. pylori does not contain a classical DsbC. We also show that HP0231 is not involved in the introduction of disulfide bonds into HcpC (Helicobacter cysteine-rich protein C), a protein involved in the modulation of the H. pylori interaction with its host. Additionally, we also constructed a truncated version of HP0231 lacking the dimerization domain, denoted HP0231m, and showed that it acts in Escherichia coli cells in a DsbB-dependent manner. In contrast, HP0231m and classical monomeric EcDsbA (E. coli DsbA protein) were both unable to complement the lack of HP0231 in H. pylori cells, though they exist in oxidized forms. HP0231m is inactive in the insulin reduction assay and possesses high chaperone activity, in contrast to EcDsbA. In conclusion, HP0231 combines oxidative functions characteristic of DsbA proteins and chaperone activity characteristic of DsbC/DsbG, and it lacks isomerization activity.

Functional and bioinformatics analysis of two Campylobacter jejuni homologs of the thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase, DsbA.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial Dsb enzymes are involved in the oxidative folding of many proteins, through the formation of disulfide bonds between their cysteine residues. The Dsb protein network has been well characterized in cells of the model microorganism Escherichia coli. To gain insight into the functioning of the Dsb system in epsilon-Proteobacteria, where it plays an important role in the colonization process, we studied two homologs of the main Escherichia coli Dsb oxidase (EcDsbA) that are present in the cells of the enteric pathogen Campylobacter jejuni, the most frequently reported bacterial cause of human enteritis in the world. METHODS AND RESULTS: Phylogenetic analysis suggests the horizontal transfer of the epsilon-Proteobacterial DsbAs from a common ancestor to gamma-Proteobacteria, which then gave rise to the DsbL lineage. Phenotype and enzymatic assays suggest that the two C. jejuni DsbAs play different roles in bacterial cells and have divergent substrate spectra. CjDsbA1 is essential for the motility and autoagglutination phenotypes, while CjDsbA2 has no impact on those processes. CjDsbA1 plays a critical role in the oxidative folding that ensures the activity of alkaline phosphatase CjPhoX, whereas CjDsbA2 is crucial for the activity of arylsulfotransferase CjAstA, encoded within the dsbA2-dsbB-astA operon. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that CjDsbA1 is the primary thiol-oxidoreductase affecting life processes associated with bacterial spread and host colonization, as well as ensuring the oxidative folding of particular protein substrates. In contrast, CjDsbA2 activity does not affect the same processes and so far its oxidative folding activity has been demonstrated for one substrate, arylsulfotransferase CjAstA. The results suggest the cooperation between CjDsbA2 and CjDsbB. In the case of the CjDsbA1, this cooperation is not exclusive and there is probably another protein to be identified in C. jejuni cells that acts to re-oxidize CjDsbA1. Altogether the data presented here constitute the considerable insight to the Epsilonproteobacterial Dsb systems, which have been poorly understood so far.