Enhancer-promoter interactions are reconfigured through the formation of long-range multiway hubs as mouse ES cells exit pluripotency.

Enhancers bind transcription factors, chromatin regulators, and non-coding transcripts to modulate the expression of target genes. Here, we report 3D genome structures of single mouse ES cells as they are induced to exit pluripotency and transition through a formative stage prior to undergoing neuroectodermal differentiation. We find that there is a remarkable reorganization of 3D genome structure where inter-chromosomal intermingling increases dramatically in the formative state. This intermingling is associated with the formation of a large number of multiway hubs that bring together enhancers and promoters with similar chromatin states from typically 5-8 distant chromosomal sites that are often separated by many Mb from each other. In the formative state, genes important for pluripotency exit establish contacts with emerging enhancers within these multiway hubs, suggesting that the structural changes we have observed may play an important role in modulating transcription and establishing new cell identities.

3D structures of individual mammalian genomes studied by single-cell Hi-C.

The folding of genomic DNA from the beads-on-a-string-like structure of nucleosomes into higher-order assemblies is crucially linked to nuclear processes. Here we calculate 3D structures of entire mammalian genomes using data from a new chromosome conformation capture procedure that allows us to first image and then process single cells. The technique enables genome folding to be examined at a scale of less than 100 kb, and chromosome structures to be validated. The structures of individual topological-associated domains and loops vary substantially from cell to cell. By contrast, A and B compartments, lamina-associated domains and active enhancers and promoters are organized in a consistent way on a genome-wide basis in every cell, suggesting that they could drive chromosome and genome folding. By studying genes regulated by pluripotency factor and nucleosome remodelling deacetylase (NuRD), we illustrate how the determination of single-cell genome structure provides a new approach for investigating biological processes.

Unorthodox PCNA Binding by Chromatin Assembly Factor 1.

The eukaryotic DNA replication fork is a hub of enzymes that continuously act to synthesize DNA, propagate DNA methylation and other epigenetic marks, perform quality control, repair nascent DNA, and package this DNA into chromatin. Many of the enzymes involved in these spatiotemporally correlated processes perform their functions by binding to proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). A long-standing question has been how the plethora of PCNA-binding enzymes exert their activities without interfering with each other. As a first step towards deciphering this complex regulation, we studied how Chromatin Assembly Factor 1 (CAF-1) binds to PCNA. We demonstrate that CAF-1 binds to PCNA in a heretofore uncharacterized manner that depends upon a cation-pi (π) interaction. An arginine residue, conserved among CAF-1 homologs but absent from other PCNA-binding proteins, inserts into the hydrophobic pocket normally occupied by proteins that contain canonical PCNA interaction peptides (PIPs). Mutation of this arginine disrupts the ability of CAF-1 to bind PCNA and to assemble chromatin. The PIP of the CAF-1 p150 subunit resides at the extreme C-terminus of an apparent long α-helix (119 amino acids) that has been reported to bind DNA. The length of that helix and the presence of a PIP at the C-terminus are evolutionarily conserved among numerous species, ranging from yeast to humans. This arrangement of a very long DNA-binding coiled-coil that terminates in PIPs may serve to coordinate DNA and PCNA binding by CAF-1.

Single-cell Hi-C reveals cell-to-cell variability in chromosome structure.

Large-scale chromosome structure and spatial nuclear arrangement have been linked to control of gene expression and DNA replication and repair. Genomic techniques based on chromosome conformation capture (3C) assess contacts for millions of loci simultaneously, but do so by averaging chromosome conformations from millions of nuclei. Here we introduce single-cell Hi-C, combined with genome-wide statistical analysis and structural modelling of single-copy X chromosomes, to show that individual chromosomes maintain domain organization at the megabase scale, but show variable cell-to-cell chromosome structures at larger scales. Despite this structural stochasticity, localization of active gene domains to boundaries of chromosome territories is a hallmark of chromosomal conformation. Single-cell Hi-C data bridge current gaps between genomics and microscopy studies of chromosomes, demonstrating how modular organization underlies dynamic chromosome structure, and how this structure is probabilistically linked with genome activity patterns.

Three-Dimensional Super-Resolution in Eukaryotic Cells Using the Double-Helix Point Spread Function.

Single-molecule localization microscopy, typically based on total internal reflection illumination, has taken our understanding of protein organization and dynamics in cells beyond the diffraction limit. However, biological systems exist in a complicated three-dimensional environment, which has required the development of new techniques, including the double-helix point spread function (DHPSF), to accurately visualize biological processes. The application of the DHPSF approach has so far been limited to the study of relatively small prokaryotic cells. By matching the refractive index of the objective lens immersion liquid to that of the sample media, we demonstrate DHPSF imaging of up to 15-µm-thick whole eukaryotic cell volumes in three to five imaging planes. We illustrate the capabilities of the DHPSF by exploring large-scale membrane reorganization in human T cells after receptor triggering, and by using single-particle tracking to image several mammalian proteins, including membrane, cytoplasmic, and nuclear proteins in T cells and embryonic stem cells.

Dynamic monitoring of single cell lysis in an impedance-based microfluidic device.

A microfluidic device that is capable of trapping and sensing dynamic variations in the electrical properties of individual cells is demonstrated. The device is applied to the real-time recording of impedance measurements of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) during the process of membrane lysis, with the resulting changes in the electrical properties of cells during this process being quantitatively tracked over time. It is observed that the impedance magnitude decreases dramatically after cell membrane lysis. A significant shift in the phase spectrum is also observed during the time course of this process. By fitting experimental data to physical models, the electrical parameters of cells can be extracted and parameter variations quantified during the process. In the cell lysis experiments, the equivalent conductivity of the cell membrane is found to increase significantly due to pore formation in the membrane during lysis. An increase in the specific capacitance of the membrane is also observed. On the other hand, the conductivity of the cytoplasm is observed to decrease, which may be explained the fact that excess water enters the cell through the gradual permeabilization of the membrane during lysis. Cells can be trapped in the device for periods up to several days, and their electrical response can be monitored by real-time impedance measurements in a label-free and non-invasive manner. Furthermore, due to the highly efficient single cell trapping capacity of the device, a number of cells can be trapped and held in separate wells for concurrent parallel experiments, allowing for the possibility of stepped parametric experiments and studying cell heterogeneity by combining measurements across the array.

A microfluidic platform for trapping, releasing and super-resolution imaging of single cells.

A multi-layer device, combining hydrodynamic trapping with microfluidic valving techniques, has been developed for on-chip manipulation and imaging of single cells and particles. Such a device contains a flow layer with trapping channels to capture single particles or cells and a control layer with valve channels to selectively control the trap and release processes. Particles and cells have been successfully trapped and released using the proposed device. The device enables the trapping of single particles with a trapping efficiency of greater than 95%, and allows for single particles and cells to be trapped, released and manipulated by simply controlling corresponding valves. Moreover, the trap and release processes are found to be compatible with biological samples like cells. Our device allows stable immobilisation of large numbers of single cells in a few minutes, significantly easing the experiment setup for single-cell characterisation and offering a stable platform for both single-molecule and super-resolution imaging. Proof-of-concept super- resolution imaging experiments with mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) have been conducted by exploiting super-resolution photoactivated localisation microscopy (PALM). Cells and nuclei were stably trapped and imaged. Centromeres of ∼200 nm size could be identified with a localisation precision of <15 nm.

Quantification of DNA-associated proteins inside eukaryotic cells using single-molecule localization microscopy.

Development of single-molecule localization microscopy techniques has allowed nanometre scale localization accuracy inside cells, permitting the resolution of ultra-fine cell structure and the elucidation of crucial molecular mechanisms. Application of these methodologies to understanding processes underlying DNA replication and repair has been limited to defined in vitro biochemical analysis and prokaryotic cells. In order to expand these techniques to eukaryotic systems, we have further developed a photo-activated localization microscopy-based method to directly visualize DNA-associated proteins in unfixed eukaryotic cells. We demonstrate that motion blurring of fluorescence due to protein diffusivity can be used to selectively image the DNA-bound population of proteins. We designed and tested a simple methodology and show that it can be used to detect changes in DNA binding of a replicative helicase subunit, Mcm4, and the replication sliding clamp, PCNA, between different stages of the cell cycle and between distinct genetic backgrounds.

Insight into the architecture of the NuRD complex: structure of the RbAp48-MTA1 subcomplex.

The nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase (NuRD) complex is a widely conserved transcriptional co-regulator that harbors both nucleosome remodeling and histone deacetylase activities. It plays a critical role in the early stages of ES cell differentiation and the reprogramming of somatic to induced pluripotent stem cells. Abnormalities in several NuRD proteins are associated with cancer and aging. We have investigated the architecture of NuRD by determining the structure of a subcomplex comprising RbAp48 and MTA1. Surprisingly, RbAp48 recognizes MTA1 using the same site that it uses to bind histone H4, showing that assembly into NuRD modulates RbAp46/48 interactions with histones. Taken together with other results, our data show that the MTA proteins act as scaffolds for NuRD complex assembly. We further show that the RbAp48-MTA1 interaction is essential for the in vivo integration of RbAp46/48 into the NuRD complex.

Structure calculation, refinement and validation using CcpNmr Analysis.

CcpNmr Analysis provides a streamlined pipeline for both NMR chemical shift assignment and structure determination of biological macromolecules. In addition, it encompasses tools to analyse the many additional experiments that make NMR such a pivotal technique for research into complex biological questions. This report describes how CcpNmr Analysis can seamlessly link together all of the tasks in the NMR structure-determination process. It details each of the stages from generating NMR restraints [distance, dihedral, hydrogen bonds and residual dipolar couplings (RDCs)], exporting these to and subsequently re-importing them from structure-calculation software (such as the programs CYANA or ARIA) and analysing and validating the results obtained from the structure calculation to, ultimately, the streamlined deposition of the completed assignments and the refined ensemble of structures into the PDBe repository. Until recently, such solution-structure determination by NMR has been quite a laborious task, requiring multiple stages and programs. However, with the new enhancements to CcpNmr Analysis described here, this process is now much more intuitive and efficient and less error-prone.

A microfluidic device for the hydrodynamic immobilisation of living fission yeast cells for super-resolution imaging.

We describe a microfluidic device designed specifically for the reversible immobilisation of Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Fission Yeast) cells to facilitate live cell super-resolution microscopy. Photo-Activation Localisation Microscopy (PALM) is used to create detailed super-resolution images within living cells with a modal accuracy of >25 nm in the lateral dimensions. The novel flow design captures and holds cells in a well-defined array with minimal effect on the normal growth kinetics. Cells are held over several hours and can continue to grow and divide within the device during fluorescence imaging.

High-resolution heteronuclear multidimensional NMR of proteins in living insect cells using a baculovirus protein expression system.

Recent developments in in-cell NMR techniques have allowed us to study proteins in detail inside living eukaryotic cells. In order to complement the existing protocols, and to extend the range of possible applications, we introduce a novel approach for observing in-cell NMR spectra using the sf9 cell/baculovirus system. High-resolution 2D (1)H-(15)N correlation spectra were observed for four model proteins expressed in sf9 cells. Furthermore, 3D triple-resonance NMR spectra of the Streptococcus protein G B1 domain were observed in sf9 cells by using nonlinear sampling to overcome the short lifetime of the samples and the low abundance of the labeled protein. The data were processed with a quantitative maximum entropy algorithm. These were assigned ab initio, yielding approximately 80% of the expected backbone NMR resonances. Well-resolved NOE cross peaks could be identified in the 3D (15)N-separated NOESY spectrum, suggesting that structural analysis of this size of protein will be feasible in sf9 cells.

Insights into association of the NuRD complex with FOG-1 from the crystal structure of an RbAp48·FOG-1 complex.

Chromatin-modifying complexes such as the NuRD complex are recruited to particular genomic sites by gene-specific nuclear factors. Overall, however, little is known about the molecular basis for these interactions. Here, we present the 1.9 Å resolution crystal structure of the NuRD subunit RbAp48 bound to the 15 N-terminal amino acids of the GATA-1 cofactor FOG-1. The FOG-1 peptide contacts a negatively charged binding pocket on top of the RbAp48 ß-propeller that is distinct from the binding surface used by RpAp48 to contact histone H4. We further show that RbAp48 interacts with the NuRD subunit MTA-1 via a surface that is distinct from its FOG-binding pocket, providing a first glimpse into the way in which NuRD assembly facilitates interactions with cofactors. Our RbAp48·FOG-1 structure provides insight into the molecular determinants of FOG-1-dependent association with the NuRD complex and into the links between transcription regulation and nucleosome remodeling.

The chromosome passenger complex is required for fidelity of chromosome transmission and cytokinesis in meiosis of mouse oocytes.

The existence of two forms of the chromosome passenger complex (CPC) in the mammalian oocyte has meant that its role in female meiosis has remained unclear. Here we use loss- and gain-of function approaches to assess the meiotic functions of one of the shared components of these complexes, INCENP, and of the variable kinase subunits, Aurora B or Aurora C. We show that either the depletion of INCENP or the combined inhibition of Aurora kinases B and C activates the anaphase-promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C) before chromosomes have properly congressed in meiosis I and also prevents cytokinesis and hence extrusion of the first polar body. Overexpression of Aurora C also advances APC/C activation and results in cytokinesis failure in a high proportion of oocytes, indicative of a dominant effect on CPC function. Together, this points to roles for the meiotic CPC in functions similar to the mitotic roles of the complex: correcting chromosome attachment to microtubules, facilitating the spindle-assembly checkpoint (SAC) function and enabling cytokinesis. Surprisingly, overexpression of Aurora B leads to a failure of APC/C activation, stabilization of securin and consequently a failure of chiasmate chromosomes to resolve - a dominant phenotype that is completely suppressed by depletion of INCENP. Taken together with the differential distribution of Aurora proteins B and C on chiasmate chromosomes, this points to differential functions of the two forms of CPC in regulating the separation of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I.

A software framework for analysing solid-state MAS NMR data.

Solid-state magic-angle-spinning (MAS) NMR of proteins has undergone many rapid methodological developments in recent years, enabling detailed studies of protein structure, function and dynamics. Software development, however, has not kept pace with these advances and data analysis is mostly performed using tools developed for solution NMR which do not directly address solid-state specific issues. Here we present additions to the CcpNmr Analysis software package which enable easier identification of spinning side bands, straightforward analysis of double quantum spectra, automatic consideration of non-uniform labelling schemes, as well as extension of other existing features to the needs of solid-state MAS data. To underpin this, we have updated and extended the CCPN data model and experiment descriptions to include transfer types and nomenclature appropriate for solid-state NMR experiments, as well as a set of experiment prototypes covering the experiments commonly employed by solid-sate MAS protein NMR spectroscopists. This work not only improves solid-state MAS NMR data analysis but provides a platform for anyone who uses the CCPN data model for programming, data transfer, or data archival involving solid-state MAS NMR data.

Genomic imprinting in mouse blastocysts is predominantly associated with H3K27me3.

In mammalian genomes, differentially methylated regions (DMRs) and histone marks including trimethylation of histone 3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3) at imprinted genes are asymmetrically inherited to control parentally-biased gene expression. However, neither parent-of-origin-specific transcription nor imprints have been comprehensively mapped at the blastocyst stage of preimplantation development. Here, we address this by integrating transcriptomic and epigenomic approaches in mouse preimplantation embryos. We find that seventy-one genes exhibit previously unreported parent-of-origin-specific expression in blastocysts (nBiX: novel blastocyst-imprinted expressed). Uniparental expression of nBiX genes disappears soon after implantation. Micro-whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (µWGBS) of individual uniparental blastocysts detects 859 DMRs. We further find that 16% of nBiX genes are associated with a DMR, whereas most are associated with parentally-biased H3K27me3, suggesting a role for Polycomb-mediated imprinting in blastocysts. nBiX genes are clustered: five clusters contained at least one published imprinted gene, and five clusters exclusively contained nBiX genes. These data suggest that early development undergoes a complex program of stage-specific imprinting involving different tiers of regulation.

Multiple protein phosphatases are required for mitosis in Drosophila.

BACKGROUND: Approximately one-third of the Drosophila kinome has been ascribed some cell-cycle function. However, little is known about which of its 117 protein phosphatases (PPs) or subunits have counteracting roles. RESULTS: We investigated mitotic roles of PPs through systematic RNAi. We found that G(2)-M progression requires Puckered, the JNK MAP-kinase inhibitory phosphatase and PP2C in addition to string (Cdc25). Strong mitotic arrest and chromosome congression failure occurred after Pp1-87B downregulation. Chromosome alignment and segregation defects also occurred after knockdown of PP1-Flapwing, not previously thought to have a mitotic role. Reduction of several nonreceptor tyrosine phosphatases produced spindle and chromosome behavior defects, and for corkscrew, premature chromatid separation. RNAi of the dual-specificity phosphatase, Myotubularin, or the related Sbf "antiphosphatase" resulted in aberrant mitotic chromosome behavior. Finally, for PP2A, knockdown of the catalytic or A subunits led to bipolar monoastral spindles, knockdown of the Twins B subunit led to bridged and lagging chromosomes, and knockdown of the B' Widerborst subunit led to scattering of all mitotic chromosomes. Widerborst was associated with MEI-S332 (Shugoshin) and required for its kinetochore localization. CONCLUSIONS: We identify cell-cycle roles for 22 of 117 Drosophila PPs. Involvement of several PPs in G(2) suggests multiple points for its regulation. Major mitotic roles are played by PP1 with tyrosine PPs and Myotubularin-related PPs having significant roles in regulating chromosome behavior. Finally, depending upon its regulatory subunits, PP2A regulates spindle bipolarity, kinetochore function, and progression into anaphase. Discovery of several novel cell-cycle PPs identifies a need for further studies of protein dephosphorylation.

Structural basis for the recognition of histone H4 by the histone-chaperone RbAp46.

RbAp46 and RbAp48 (pRB-associated proteins p46 and p48, also known as RBBP7 and RBBP4, respectively) are highly homologous histone chaperones that play key roles in establishing and maintaining chromatin structure. We report here the crystal structure of human RbAp46 bound to histone H4. RbAp46 folds into a seven-bladed beta propeller structure and binds histone H4 in a groove formed between an N-terminal alpha helix and an extended loop inserted into blade six. Surprisingly, histone H4 adopts a different conformation when interacting with RbAp46 than it does in either the nucleosome or in the complex with ASF1, another histone chaperone. Our structural and biochemical results suggest that when a histone H3/H4 dimer (or tetramer) binds to RbAp46 or RbAp48, helix 1 of histone H4 unfolds to interact with the histone chaperone. We discuss the implications of our findings for the assembly and function of RbAp46 and RbAp48 complexes.

Isolation of protein complexes involved in mitosis and cytokinesis from Drosophila cultured cells.

The identification of all the individual components that constitute the plethora of complexes in each cell type represents perhaps the most exciting challenge of postgenomic biology. This is particularly important in the study of events such as mitosis and cytokinesis, in which rapid and precise protein-protein interactions regulate both the direction and accuracy of these intricate processes. Here we describe an experimental strategy to isolate protein complexes involved in mitosis and cytokinesis in cultured Drosophila cells. This method involves the tagging of the bait protein with two IgG binding domains of Protein A and the isolation of the tagged bait along with its interacting partners by a single affinity purification step. These isolated complexes can then be analysed by several methods including mass spectrometry and Western blotting. Although this method has proven very successful in isolating mitotic and cytokinetic complexes, it can also be used to characterise protein complexes involved in many other cellular processes.

Citrullination of HP1γ chromodomain affects association with chromatin.

BACKGROUND: Stem cell differentiation involves major chromatin reorganisation, heterochromatin formation and genomic relocalisation of structural proteins, including heterochromatin protein 1 gamma (HP1γ). As the principal reader of the repressive histone marks H3K9me2/3, HP1 plays a key role in numerous processes including heterochromatin formation and maintenance. RESULTS: We find that HP1γ is citrullinated in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) and this diminishes when cells differentiate, indicating that it is a dynamically regulated post-translational modification during stem cell differentiation. Peptidylarginine deiminase 4, a known regulator of pluripotency, citrullinates HP1γ in vitro. This requires R38 and R39 within the HP1γ chromodomain, and the catalytic activity is enhanced by trimethylated H3K9 (H3K9me3) peptides. Mutation of R38 and R39, designed to mimic citrullination, affects HP1γ binding to H3K9me3-containing peptides. Using live-cell single-particle tracking, we demonstrate that R38 and R39 are important for HP1γ binding to chromatin in vivo. Furthermore, their mutation reduces the residence time of HP1γ on chromatin in differentiating mESCs. CONCLUSION: Citrullination is a novel post-translational modification of the structural heterochromatin protein HP1γ in mESCs that is dynamically regulated during mESC differentiation. The citrullinated residues lie within the HP1γ chromodomain and are important for H3K9me3 binding in vitro and chromatin association in vivo.