Changes in food behavior during the first lockdown of COVID-19 pandemic: A multi-country study about changes in eating habits, motivations, and food-related behaviors.

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in severe, unprecedented changes affecting the world population. Restrictions in mobility, social distancing measures, and the persistent social alarm, during the first period of pandemic, resulted in dramatic lifestyle changes and affected physical and psychological wellbeing on a global scale. An international research team was constituted to develop a study involving different countries about eating motivations, dietary habits and behaviors related with food intake, acquisition, and preparation. This study presents results of an online survey, carried out during the first lockdown, in 2020, assessing food-related behavior and how people perceived them to change, comparatively to the period preceding the COVID-19 outbreak. A total of 3332 responses, collected from 16 countries, were considered for analysis [72.8% in Europe, 12.8% in Africa, 2.2% in North America (USA) and 12.2% in South America]. Results suggest that the main motivations perceived to drive food intake were familiarity and liking. Two clusters were identified, based on food intake frequency, which were classified as "healthier" and "unhealthier". The former was constituted by individuals with higher scholarity level, to whom intake was more motivated by health, natural concerns, and weight control, and less by liking, pleasure or affect regulation. The second cluster was constituted by individuals with a higher proportion of male and intake more influenced by affect-related motivations. During this period, a generalized lower concern with the convenience attributes of foods was noted (namely, choice of processed products and fast-food meals), alongside an increase in time and efforts dedicated to home cooking. Understanding the main changes and their underlying motivations in a time of unprecedented crisis is of major importance, as it provides the scientific support that allows one to anticipate the implications for the future of the global food and nutrition system and, consequently, to take the appropriate action.

Individual Variation in PROP Status, Fungiform Papillae Density, and Responsiveness to Taste Stimuli in a Large Population Sample.

Despite considerable research investigating the role of 6-n-propylthiouracil bitterness perception and variation of fungiform papillae density in food perception, this relationship remains controversial as well as the association between the 2 phenotypes. Data from 1119 subjects (38.6% male; 18-60 years) enrolled in the Italian Taste project were analyzed. Responsiveness to the bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil was assessed on the general Labeled Magnitude Scale. Fungiform papillae density was determined from manual counting on digital images of the tongue. Solutions of tastes, astringent, and pungent sensations were prepared to be moderate/strong on a general Labeled Magnitude Scale. Four foods had tastants added to produce 4 variations in target sensations from weak to strong (pear juice: citric acid, sourness; chocolate pudding: sucrose, sweetness; bean purée: sodium chloride, saltiness; and tomato juice: capsaicin, pungency). Women gave ratings to 6-n-propylthiouracil and showed fungiform papillae density that was significantly higher than men. Both phenotype markers significantly decreased with age. No significant correlations were found between 6-n-propylthiouracil ratings and fungiform papillae density. Fungiform papillae density variation does not affect perceived intensity of solutions. Responsiveness to 6-n-propylthiouracil positively correlated to perceived intensity of most stimuli in solution. A significant effect of fungiform papillae density on perceived intensity of target sensation in foods was found in a few cases. Responsiveness to 6-n-propylthiouracil positively affected all taste intensities in subjects with low fungiform papillae density whereas there were no significant effects of 6-n-propylthiouracil in those with high fungiform papillae density. These data highlight a complex interplay between 6-n-propylthiouracil status and fungiform papillae density and the need of a critical reconsideration of their role in food perception and acceptability.

Determinants of Obesity in Italian Adults: The Role of Taste Sensitivity, Food Liking, and Food Neophobia.

Recent evidence has suggested that factors related to sensory perception may explain excess weight. The objective of this study was to consider multiple aspects while investigating the phenomenon of obesity. One goal was to compare taste acuity (taste threshold and density of fungiform papillae) in both normal weight and obese subjects. Thresholds for 4 basic tastes and the fat stimulus were investigated. A second research goal was to study the relationship between food neophobia and food liking according to the body mass index and taste sensitivity. The results showed that obese subjects seem to have higher threshold values and a reduced number of fungiform papillae than do normal weight subjects. Food neophobia did not vary with nutritional status, whereas differences were found for food liking, with obese subjects showing significantly higher liking ratings for high energy dense products compared with normal weight subjects.

Cross-modal interactions for custard desserts differ in obese and normal weight Italian women.

The effects of variation in odors and thickening agents on sensory properties and acceptability of a model custard dessert were investigated in normal weight and obese women. Subjects rated their liking and the intensity of sensory properties (sweetness, vanilla and butter flavors, and creaminess) of 3 block samples (the first varied in vanilla aroma, the second varied in butter aroma and the third varied in xanthan gum). Significant differences were found in acceptability and intensity ratings in relation to body mass index. The addition of butter aroma in the custard was the most effective way to elicit odor-taste, odor-flavor and odor-texture interactions in obese women. In this group, butter aroma, signaling energy dense products, increased the perception of sweetness, vanilla flavor and creaminess, which are all desirable properties in a custard, while maintaining a high liking degree. Understanding cross-modal interactions in relation to nutritional status is interesting in order to develop new food products with reduced sugar and fat, that are still satisfying for the consumer. This could have important implications to reduce caloric intake and tackle the obesity epidemic.

Variety in snack servings as determinant for acceptance in school children.

Variety within a meal is known to increase intake. However, intake of certain food items (e.g. vegetables) in children is consistently below recommendations, and increasing the consumption of such food would lead to health benefits. This study investigated how different levels of food variety influence children's acceptance. A total of 132 children, aged from 9 to 11 years, were exposed to vegetables, fruits and nut snacks during mid-morning break at school. Two different sets of stimuli were used in a within subject design: Classical Variety (CV), i.e. serving of different foods and Perceived Variety (PV), i.e. serving of the same food in different shapes. For each set, three levels of variety in the servings were tested: low, medium, and high. Intake and liking were determined for each serving set. ANOVA results showed that intake of CV set decreased according to the level of variety, whereas results of PV set only showed an increase of liking with increasing levels of variety. Adding more variations of products appeared to be less successful on consumption despite changing the liking of the products, may be because consumption is more affected by acceptability and familiarity for the stimuli than by variety.

Influence of pig genetic type on sensory properties and consumer acceptance of Parma, San Daniele and Toscano dry-cured hams.

BACKGROUND: This study investigated the sensory properties and acceptability of different Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) dry-cured hams. For each PDO, two genotypes were selected: IL×LW (reference hybrid) and Goland (commercial hybrid). RESULTS: According to descriptive analysis, genetic variance affected few attributes describing Toscano and San Daniele ham sensory quality. The commercial hybrid Parma ham was distinct from the traditional one, the Goland genotype being significantly higher in red color, saltiness, dryness and hardness and showing a lower intensity of pork-meat odor/flavor and sweetness than the IL×LW genotype. Consumer acceptance was mainly influenced by the PDO technology. A genotype effect on acceptance was only observed in Toscano ham. Principal component regression analysis revealed that Toscano ham was the preferred sample. Considering that the consumers involved were from Tuscany, it is likely that Toscano ham was preferred owing to their higher familiarity with this product. CONCLUSION: Sensory properties of ham samples were better discriminated according to their PDO than their genotype. Likewise, consumer liking was more affected by the specific PDO technology than by genetic type. Toscano ham was the most preferred and most familiar product among Tuscan consumers, indicating that familiarity with the product was the best driver of dry-cured ham preference.

Modulation of fecal Clostridiales bacteria and butyrate by probiotic intervention with Lactobacillus paracasei DG varies among healthy adults.

BACKGROUND: The modulation of gut microbiota is considered to be the first target to establish probiotic efficacy in a healthy population. OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to determine the impact of a probiotic on the intestinal microbial ecology of healthy volunteers. METHODS: High-throughput 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing was used to characterize the fecal microbiota in healthy adults (23-55 y old) of both sexes, before and after 4 wk of daily consumption of a capsule containing at least 24 billion viable Lactobacillus paracasei DG cells, according to a randomized, double-blind, crossover placebo-controlled design. RESULTS: Probiotic intake induced an increase in Proteobacteria (P = 0.006) and in the Clostridiales genus Coprococcus (P = 0.009), whereas the Clostridiales genus Blautia (P = 0.036) was decreased; a trend of reduction was also observed for Anaerostipes (P = 0.05) and Clostridium (P = 0.06). We also found that the probiotic effect depended on the initial butyrate concentration. In fact, participants with butyrate >100 mmol/kg of wet feces had a mean butyrate reduction of 49 ± 21% and a concomitant decrease in the sum of 6 Clostridiales genera, namely Faecalibacterium, Blautia, Anaerostipes, Pseudobutyrivibrio, Clostridium, and Butyrivibrio (P = 0.021), after the probiotic intervention. In contrast, in participants with initial butyrate concentrations <25 mmol/kg of wet feces, the probiotic contributed to a 329 ± 255% (mean ± SD) increment in butyrate concomitantly with an ∼55% decrease in Ruminococcus (P = 0.016) and a 150% increase in an abundantly represented unclassified Bacteroidales genus (P = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The intake of L. paracasei DG increased the Blautia:Coprococcus ratio, which, according to the literature, can potentially confer a health benefit on the host. The probiotic impact on the microbiota and on short-chain fatty acids, however, seems to strictly depend on the initial characteristics of the intestinal microbial ecosystem. In particular, fecal butyrate concentrations could represent an important biomarker for identifying subjects who may benefit from probiotic treatment. This trial was registered at www.controlled-trials.com/isrctn as ISRCTN56945491.

School-based intervention with children. Peer-modeling, reward and repeated exposure reduce food neophobia and increase liking of fruits and vegetables.

This study investigated the effectiveness of the 'Food Dudes' school-based intervention consisting of rewards, peer-modeling and food exposure on food neophobia and the liking of fruits and vegetables (FV) in a large cohort of children. Five-hundred sixty children recruited from three schools were assigned to the experimental or control group. For 16 days, children in the experimental group watched motivational videos, were read letters to encourage them to eat FV and received a small reward for eating one portion of both a fruit and a vegetable. The control group was only provided with FV for the same time period. Food neophobia and liking were measured in both groups of children before and after the intervention, and a follow-up measurement was carried out 6 months later. The intervention was effective in reducing food neophobia and, most importantly, a persistent effect was observed 6 months after the intervention as children of the experimental group showed significantly lower neophobia scores than the control group. Additionally, the program was effective in increasing liking for both FV; however, this effect was maintained only for fruit after 6 months.

A Special Issue on "Food Perception and Preferences in the Context of Health and Sustainability".

In a rapidly changing world with increasing environmental and health issues, it is necessary to steer research in an appropriate direction while keeping our health in mind [...].

Determinants of Consumers' Acceptance and Adoption of Novel Food in View of More Resilient and Sustainable Food Systems in the EU: A Systematic Literature Review.

This review article aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the main determinants of consumers' acceptance of novel foods (new foods and ingredients) in the EU with emphasis on product's intrinsic properties (sensory characteristics) and individual factors (socio-demographics, perceptive, psychological) by adopting a systematic approach following the PRISMA methodology. Case studies on terrestrial (i.e., insects, cultured meat and other animal origin products, plant-based food including mushrooms, plant-based analogues, pulses, and cereals) and aquatic systems (i.e., algae and jellyfish) are included focusing on age-related and cross-national differences in consumer acceptance of novel foods and ingredients. General trends have emerged that are common to all the novel foods analysed, regardless of their aquatic or terrestrial origin. Aspects such as food neophobia, unfamiliarity, and poor knowledge of the product are important barriers to the consumption of novel foods, while healthiness and environmental sustainability perception are drivers of acceptance. Sensory properties are challenging for more familiar ingredients such as plant-based food (e.g., novel food made by pulses, mushrooms, cereals and pseudocereals). Results are discussed in terms of feasibility of introducing these products in the EU food systems highlighting strategies that can encourage the use of new ingredients or novel foods.

Fine Cocoa Fermentation with Selected Lactic Acid Bacteria: Fermentation Performance and Impact on Chocolate Composition and Sensory Properties.

Cocoa fermentation is a central step in chocolate manufacturing. In this research, we performed controlled fermentations of a fine cocoa variety to evaluate the impact of adjunct cultures of selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB) on fermentation parameters, chemical composition, and sensory profile of fine cocoa and chocolate. Improved fermentation processes were carried out at the Centre for the Integral Transformation of Cacao (CETICO) in Dominican Republic. Two strains of LAB, previously isolated from cocoa, and belonging to Lactiplantibacillus fabifermentans and Furfurilactibacillus rossiae species, were employed. Fermentation parameters, protein, peptide and free amino acid profiles of the fermented cocoa and volatile molecules were determined. Sensory analysis of the derived chocolate was also carried out. The obtained results indicated that the addition of the adjunct cultures influences the proteolytic processes and the free amino acid profile. Finally, the adjunct cultures increased the complexity of the flavour profile of the chocolate as they received a higher score for descriptors commonly used for fine chocolate, such as honey and red fruits. The results obtained showed that the selected strains can be an added value to the development of specific flavours that are desirable at industrial level.

Determinants of Preference and Consumption of Healthy Food in Children.

According to recent findings, action is urgently needed to promote healthy eating habits among children, especially to increase daily consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables [...].

Describing the Sensory Complexity of Italian Wines: Application of the Rate-All-That-Apply (RATA) Method.

The aim of this study was to characterise a large and heterogeneous Italian wine sample applying the Rate-All-That-Apply method (RATA) with semi-trained judges. Twelve judges evaluated 46 samples including white, red, rosé and sparkling wines in two replicates. Judges were asked to select from a list of descriptors all the sensations that described the samples and to evaluate their intensity. Judges obtained high repeatability index scores. A good panel reliability was also highlighted in terms of the reproducibility of the whole sensory characterisation through a multi-factor analysis (MFA). MFA results also showed a good discriminatory ability of the panel with red wines described by bitterness, astringency, body, alcohol and specific olfactory stimuli such as red fruits, spicy and roasted, while white wines were salty, sour and characterised by citrus, tropical fruits and white flowers odours. The RATA method is a suitable and reliable methodology for the description of a wide variety of wine samples and a valuable alternative approach to conventional descriptive analysis to gather information about the sensory perception of a very complex product even when large panels of consumers are not available. Furthermore, the present results provide useful information for wine producers to characterise their products as well as for the optimisation of production disciplinaries, which currently are not exhaustive in the description and the discrimination among products.

Valorization of Common (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench.) and Tartary (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) Buckwheat in Gluten-Free Polenta Samples: Chemical-Physical and Sensory Characterization.

In recent years, increasing attention has been addressed to buckwheat, an interesting minor crop with an excellent nutritional profile that contributes to the sustainability and biodiversity of the agri-food system. However, the high content of rutin and quercitin present in this pseudocereal can elicit undesirable sensory properties, such as bitterness and astringency, that can limit its exploitation in food formulations. The aim of the present study was to characterize six gluten-free porridge-type formulations (called polenta) prepared using corn and buckwheat flour. Specifically, polenta samples were prepared adding common (CB) or Tartary buckwheat (TB) flour at 20% (CB20; TB20), 30% (CB30; TB30), and 40% (CB40; TB40) to corn flour. Product characterization included sensory and instrumental analyses (electronic tongue, colorimeter, and Texture Analyzer). Products containing Tartary buckwheat were darker, firmer, and characterized by a higher intensity of bitter taste and astringency than those prepared with common buckwheat. In this context, the impact of buckwheat species seems to be more important at 30% and 40% levels, suggesting that lower additions may mask the differences between the species. The gathered information could support the food industry in re-formulating products with buckwheat. Finally, findings about the relationship between instrumental and sensory data might be exploited by the food industry to decide/choose what indices to use to characterize new formulations and/or new products.

Correction: Endrizzi et al. Relationships between Intensity and Liking for Chemosensory Stimuli in Food Models: A Large-Scale Consumer Segmentation. Foods 2022, 11, 5.

In the original publication [1], there was a mistake in "Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, and Figure 5" as published [...].

Assessment of Spatial Lingual Tactile Sensitivity using a Gratings Orientation Test.

Individual thresholds by R-index estimates are calculated using a gratings orientation test (6 different tools of increasing grating size from 0.20-1.25 mm) to assess spatial lingual tactile sensitivity. During the experiment, the subjects are blindfolded and asked to specify the orientation of the grating (either horizontal or vertical) placed on the tongue. R-index is based on Signal Detection Theory (SDT), and it is an estimated probability of correctly identifying a target stimulus (the signal, e.g., the correct orientation) compared to an alternative stimulus (the noise, e.g., the incorrect orientation). Once the R-index values for each subject and each tool dimension are calculated, it is possible to derive the individual threshold by interpolating the two R-indices immediately below and above the established cut-off (typically 75%) based on one-sided R-index critical values. This procedure can be helpful in the medical field to study the association between oral tactile sensitivity, speech clarity, and swallowing disorders, as well as in sensory and consumer studies to explore individual variation in texture perception, food preferences, and eating behavior.

Tartary Buckwheat: A New Plant-Based Ingredient to Enrich Corn-Based Gluten-Free Formulations.

Tartary buckwheat is a pseudocereal receiving increasing attention as a minor crop interesting for agrobiodiversity conservation and sustainability. It is rich in bioactive substances which, however, may lead to sensory properties undesirable to the consumer, such as bitterness and astringency. The aim was to evaluate consumers' perception and overall liking of food products enriched with tartary or common buckwheat. A total of 120 consumers (56% women) aged 20-60 years (mean age ± SD: 38.8 ± 13.0 years) evaluated six samples of a corn-based gluten-free formulation enriched by increasing concentrations (20%, 30%, 40%) of either common (CB) or tartary buckwheat (TB) flour for overall liking and appropriateness of sensory properties. Results showed significant differences (p < 0.0001) in liking among samples. Considering all subjects, liking decreased with the increase of tartary buckwheat additions, although TB20 and TB30 samples were well accepted and comparable to all CB samples. TB40 was the least liked product. Two clusters of consumers showing opposite behaviours according to liking were found. One cluster (30%) showed an increased liking with the increasing amount of tartary buckwheat. These results show that by keeping the concentration of tartary buckwheat up to 30%, it is possible to develop new products accepted by consumers.

Effects of Red Rice or Buckwheat Addition on Nutritional, Technological, and Sensory Quality of Potato-Based Pasta.

This work investigates the effects of red rice (R) or buckwheat (B) flour addition on nutritional, technological, and sensory quality of potato-based pasta (gnocchi). Three gluten-free (GF) and three conventional (C) samples were produced in an industrial line without any addition or with 20% R or B. R and B addition significantly (p < 0.05) reduced starch content and increased fat amount and ready digestible starch fraction (potential higher glycemic impact). R addition significantly (p < 0.05) worsened GF pasta structure, increasing solid loss in cooking water (5.4 ± 1.2 vs. 4.1 ± 0.5 g/100 g pasta) and reducing product firmness (408 ± 13 vs. 108 ± 2 N). B addition resulted in intermediate consistency (243 ± 8 N), despite the highest total fiber content and weight increase during cooking. Similar trends were found in C samples, indicating a better texturizing capacity of B in comparison to R. Samples without any addition were the most liked (C = 67.4 and GF = 60.6). Texture was the major contributor to liking: uniform structure and firm texture were positive predictors of liking, whereas a granular and coarse matrix contributed negatively. The outcomes of this research can be useful in developing GF potato-based pasta for consumers focused on healthier foods and for industries willing to better valorize their products.

Relationships between Intensity and Liking for Chemosensory Stimuli in Food Models: A Large-Scale Consumer Segmentation.

This study, which was conducted as part of the Italian Taste project, was aimed at exploring the relationship between actual liking and sensory perception in four food models. Each food model was spiked with four levels of prototypical tastant (i.e., citric acid, sucrose, sodium chloride, capsaicin) to elicit a target sensation (TS) at an increasing perceived intensity. Participants (N = 2258; 59% women, aged 18-60) provided demographic information, a stated liking for 40 different foods/beverages, and their responsiveness to tastants in water. A food-specific Pearson's coefficient was calculated individually to estimate the relationship between actual liking and TS responsiveness. Considering the relationship magnitude, consumers were grouped into four food-specific clusters, depending on whether they showed a strong negative (SNC), a weak negative (WNC), a weak positive (WPC), or a strong positive correlation (SPC). Overall, the degree of liking raised in parallel with sweetness responsiveness, fell as sourness and pungency perception increased, and showed an inverted U-shape relationship with saltiness. The SNC clusters generally perceived TSs at higher intensities, except for sourness. Clusters were validated by associating the level of stated liking towards food/beverages; however, some unexpected indications emerged: adding sugar to coffee or preferring spicy foods differentiated those presenting positive correlations from those showing negative correlations. Our findings constitute a step towards a more comprehensive understanding of food preferences.

Intake of Fibre-Associated Foods and Texture Preferences in Relation to Weight Status Among 9-12 Years Old Children in 6 European Countries.

Plant foods, rich in fibre, can offer textures that children find difficult to orally manipulate, resulting in low preferences but are important for a healthy diet and prevention of overweight in children. Our aim was to investigate preferences for food texture, intake of fibre-associated foods and the relation to BMI. Three hundred thirty European children (9-12 years, 54% female) indicated their texture preferences using the Child-Food-Texture-Preference- Questionnaire (CFTPQ), and their parents responded on fibre-associated food consumption and anthropometric information. BMI was significantly lower for children with higher intake of wholegrain alternatives of common foods; in addition to being significantly influenced by country and the wearing of a dental brace. Overall BMI-for-age-percentiles (BMI_pct) were negatively associated with the consumption of wholegrain cereals, white pasta and wholemeal products and positively associated with the intake of legumes and white biscuits. In males, BMI_pct were negatively associated with wholegrain products and dried fruits, and in females, positively with legume consumption. A few country-related associations were found for BMI_pct and wholegrain biscuits, seeds and nuts and refined products. No overall correlation was found between BMI_pct and the texture preference of soft/hard foods by CFTPQ, except in Austria. We conclude that this study revealed evidence of a connection between fibre-associated foods and children's BMI at a cross-cultural level and that sex is an important determinant of fibre-associated food intake and the development of overweight in childhood.