Elastomeric electrolytes for high-energy solid-state lithium batteries.

The use of lithium metal anodes in solid-state batteries has emerged as one of the most promising technologies for replacing conventional lithium-ion batteries1,2. Solid-state electrolytes are a key enabling technology for the safe operation of lithium metal batteries as they suppress the uncontrolled growth of lithium dendrites. However, the mechanical properties and electrochemical performance of current solid-state electrolytes do not meet the requirements for practical applications of lithium metal batteries. Here we report a class of elastomeric solid-state electrolytes with a three-dimensional interconnected plastic crystal phase. The elastomeric electrolytes show a combination of mechanical robustness, high ionic conductivity, low interfacial resistance and high lithium-ion transference number. The in situ-formed elastomer electrolyte on copper foils accommodates volume changes for prolonged lithium plating and stripping processes with a Coulombic efficiency of 100.0 per cent. Moreover, the elastomer electrolytes enable stable operation of the full cells under constrained conditions of a limited lithium source, a thin electrolyte and a high-loading LiNi0.83Mn0.06Co0.11O2 cathode at a high voltage of 4.5 volts at ambient temperature, delivering a high specific energy exceeding 410 watt-hours per kilogram of electrode plus electrolyte. The elastomeric electrolyte system presents a powerful strategy for enabling stable operation of high-energy, solid-state lithium batteries.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease and risk of esophageal cancer in patients with diabetes mellitus: a nationwide cohort study.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is closely associated with type 2 diabetes and a developing several cancers including esophageal cancer (EC). However, the association between MASLD and EC in diabetic patients has not been investigated. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the relation between MASLD and developing EC in diabetic patients. This was a population-based retrospective cohort study of data from the Korean National Health Insurance Service (NHIS). A total of 1,904,468 subjects diagnosed with diabetes who underwent NHIS-provided health checkups from 2009 to 2012 were included. We constructed a Cox proportional hazard model for the association of fatty liver index (FLI) and the risk of EC stratified by potential confounders. Over a mean follow-up duration of 6.9 years, the incidence of EC was higher in the high (≥60) FLI group compared to the low (<30) FLI group (14.4 vs. 13.7 event per 100,000 person-years). The risk of EC correlated with the degree of FLI, particularly in older (P = 0.002), female (P = 0.033), non-smoking (P = 0.002), and non-drinking patients (P = 0.025). Among obese patients, the risk of EC was not associated with FLI; however, the risk of EC was higher in the high FLI group in non-obese patients. Lean MASLD patients had the highest risk of EC (adjusted hazard ratio 1.78; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-2.13). MASLD was associated with an increased risk of EC in diabetic patients, and lean MASLD has the highest risk. Further studies are required to determine the causal relationship between MASLD and EC.

Structure-Controlled Carbon Hosts for Dendrite-Free Aqueous Zinc Batteries.

The surging demand for environmental-friendly and safe electrochemical energy storage systems has driven the development of aqueous zinc (Zn)-ion batteries (ZIBs). However, metallic Zn anodes suffer from severe dendrite growth and large volume change, resulting in a limited lifetime for aqueous ZIB applications. Here, it is shown that 3D mesoporous carbon (MC) with controlled carbon and defect configurations can function as a highly reversible and dendrite-free Zn host, enabling the stable operation of aqueous ZIBs. The MC host has a structure-controlled architecture that contains optimal sp2 -carbon and defect sites, which results in an improved initial nucleation energy barrier and promotes uniform Zn deposition. As a consequence, the MC host shows outstanding Zn plating/stripping performance over 1000 cycles at 2 mA cm-2 and over 250 cycles at 6 mA cm-2 in asymmetric cells. Density functional theory calculations further reveal the role of the defective sp2 -carbon surface in Zn adsorption energy. Moreover, a full cell based on Zn@MC900 anode and V2 O5 cathode exhibits remarkable rate performance and cycling stability over 3500 cycles. These results establish a structure-mechanism-performance relationship of the carbon host as a highly reversible Zn anode for the reliable operation of ZIBs.

Directional fabrication and dissolution of larval and juvenile oyster shells under ocean acidification.

Biomineralization is one of the key biochemical processes in calcifying bivalve species such as oysters that is affected by ocean acidification (OA). Larval life stages of oysters are made of aragonite crystals whereas the adults are made of calcite and/or aragonite. Though both calcite and aragonite are crystal polymorphs of calcium carbonate, they have different mechanical properties and hence it is important to study the micro and nano structure of different life stages of oyster shells under OA to understand the mechanisms by which OA affects biomineralization ontogeny. Here, we have studied the larval and juvenile life stages of an economically and ecologically important estuarine oyster species, Crassostrea hongkongensis, under OA with focus over shell fabrication under OA (pHNBS 7.4). We also look at the effect of parental exposure to OA on larvae and juvenile microstructure. The micro and nanostructure characterization reveals directional fabrication of oyster shells, with more organized structure as biomineralization progresses. Under OA, both the larval and juvenile stages show directional dissolution, i.e. the earlier formed shell layers undergo dissolution at first, owing to longer exposure time. Despite dissolution, the micro and nanostructure of the shell remains unaffected under OA, irrespective of parental exposure history.

Improved prognosis with integrated care management including early rhythm control and healthy lifestyle modification in patients with concurrent atrial fibrillation and diabetes mellitus: a nationwide cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with concurrent atrial fibrillation (AF) and diabetes mellitus (DM) [AF-DM] have a high risk of cardiovascular and diabetes-related complications, but are less engaged in a comprehensive treatment approach. We evaluated the association of early rhythm control (ERC), lifestyle modification (LSM), and a combination of ERC and LSM with cardiovascular or diabetes-related complication risk in patients with AF-DM (type 2). METHODS: From the National Health Information Database, 47,940 patients diagnosed with AF-DM in 2009-2016 were included. We defined ERC as rhythm control therapy within two years of AF diagnosis and LSM as adherence to ≥ 2 of the healthy behaviors among non-current smoking, non-drinking, and regular exercise. We compared the primary (ischemic stroke) and secondary (macro- and microvascular complications, glycemic emergency, and all-cause death) outcomes in four groups: non-ERC and non-LSM (group 1), LSM only (group 2), ERC only (group 3), and both ERC and LSM (group 4). RESULTS: Of total, 10,617 (22%), 26,730 (55.8%), 2,903 (6.1%), and 7,690 (16.0%) were classified into groups 1 to 4, in sequence. The mean duration from AF diagnosis to ERC was 25.6 ± 75.5 days. During 4.0 (interquartile range: 2.5-6.2) years' follow-up, groups 2 and 3 were associated with 23% and 33% lower risks of stroke than group 1, respectively. Group 4 was associated with the lowest risk of stroke: hazard ratio (HR) 0.58, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.51-0.67, p < 0.001. Regarding secondary outcomes, the lowest risks were also observed in group 4; macro- and microvascular complications, glycemic emergency, and all-cause death had HRs (95% CIs) of 0.63 (0.56-0.70), 0.88 (0.82-0.94), 0.72 (0.62-0.84), and 0.80 (0.73-0.87), respectively, all p < 0.001. CONCLUSIONS: For AF-DM patients, ERC and LSM exert a synergistic effect in preventing cardiovascular and diabetes-related complications with the greatest lowered risk of stroke. A comprehensive treatment approach should be pursued in AF-DM patients.

Accumulated hypertension burden on atrial fibrillation risk in diabetes mellitus: a nationwide population study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with diabetes mellitus have an increased risk of incident atrial fibrillation (AF). The effect of accumulated hypertension burden is a less well-known modifiable risk factor. We explored the relationship between accumulated hypertension burden and incident AF in these patients. METHODS: We evaluated data for 526,384 patients with diabetes who underwent three consecutive health examinations, between 2009 and 2012, from the Korean National Health Insurance Service. Hypertension burden was calculated by assigning points to each stage of hypertension in each health examination: 1 for stage 1 hypertension (systolic blood pressure [SBP] 130-139 mmHg; diastolic blood pressure [DBP] 80-89 mmHg); 2 for stage 2 (SBP 140-159 mmHg and DBP 90-99 mmHg); and 3 for stage 3 (SBP ≥ 160 mmHg or DBP ≥ 100 mmHg). Patients were categorized into 10 hypertensive burden groups (0-9). Groups 1-9 were then clustered into 1-3, 4-6, and 7-9. RESULTS: During a mean follow-up duration of 6.7 ± 1.7 years, AF was newly diagnosed in 18,561 (3.5%) patients. Compared to patients with hypertension burden 0, those with burden 1 to 9 showed a progressively increasing risk of incident AF: 6%, 11%, 16%, 24%, 28%, 41%, 46%, 57%, and 67% respectively. Clusters 1-3, 4-6, and 7-9 showed increased risks by 10%, 26%, and 45%, respectively, when compared to a hypertension burden of 0. CONCLUSIONS: Accumulated hypertension burden was associated with an increased risk of incident AF in patients with diabetes. Strict BP control should be emphasized for these patients.

Phase Separation-Controlled Assembly of Hierarchically Porous Aramid Nanofiber Films for High-speed Lithium-Metal Batteries.

The growth of lithium (Li) dendrites reduces the lifespan of Li-metal batteries and causes safety issues. Herein, hierarchically porous aramid nanofiber separators capable of effectively suppressing the Li dendrite growth while maintaining highly stable cycle performances at high charge/discharge rates are reported. A two-step solvent exchange process combined with reprotonation-mediated self-assembly is utilized to control the bimodal porous structure of the separators. In particular, when ethanol and water are used sequentially, aramid nanofibers form hierarchical porous structures containing nanopores in macroporous polymer frameworks to yield a mechanically robust membrane with high porosity of 97% or more. The optimized samples exhibit high ionic conductivities of 1.87-4.04 mS cm-1 and high Li-ion transference numbers of 0.77-0.84 because of the ultrahigh porosity and selective affinity to anions. Li-metal symmetric cells do not show any noticeable presence of dendrites after 100 cycles, and they operate stably for more than 1500 cycles even under extreme conditions with a high current density of >20 mA cm-2 . In addition, the LiFePO4 /Li full cell retains 86.3% of its capacity after 1000 cycles at a charge rate of 30 C.

Carbon Quantum Dot Modified Reduced Graphene Oxide Framework for Improved Alkali Metal Ion Storage Performance.

Organic materials with redox-active oxygen functional groups are of great interest as electrode materials for alkali-ion storage due to their earth-abundant constituents, structural tunability, and enhanced energy storage properties. Herein, a hybrid carbon framework consisting of reduced graphene oxide and oxygen functionalized carbon quantum dots (CQDs) is developed via the one-pot solvothermal reduction method, and a systematic study is undertaken to investigate its redox mechanism and electrochemical properties with Li-, Na-, and K-ions. Due to the incorporation of CQDs, the hybrid cathode delivers consistent improvements in charge storage performance for the alkali-ions and impressive reversible capacity (257 mAh g-1 at 50 mA g-1 ), rate capability (111 mAh g-1 at 1 A g-1 ), and cycling stability (79% retention after 10 000 cycles) with Li-ion. Furthermore, density functional theory calculations uncover the CQD structure-electrochemical reactivity trends for different alkali-ion. The results provide important insights into adopting CQD species for optimal alkali-ion storage.

Demonstration of Complete Information Trade-Off in Quantum Measurement.

While an information-disturbance trade-off in quantum measurement has been at the core of foundational quantum physics and constitutes a basis of secure quantum information processing, recently verified reversibility of a quantum measurement requires to refine it toward a complete version of information trade-off in quantum measurement. Here we experimentally demonstrate a trade-off relation among all information contents, i.e., information gain, disturbance, and reversibility in quantum measurement. By exploring quantum measurements applied on a photonic qutrit, we observe that the information of a quantum state is split into three distinct parts accounting for the extracted, disturbed, and reversible information. We verify that such different parts of information are in trade-off relations not only pairwise but also triplewise all at once, and find that the triplewise relation is tighter than any of the pairwise relations. Finally, we realize optimal quantum measurements that inherently preserve quantum information without loss of information, which offer wider applications in measurement-based quantum information processing.

Giant cell tumor of soft tissue of the colon: a case report and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: A giant cell tumor (GCT) is a benign neoplasm characterized by mixture of mononuclear cells and multinucleated cells. A GCT of soft tissue (GCT-ST) is developed in various extraosseous sites, but GCT-ST of the gastrointestinal tract is very rare. GCT-ST usually has a benign course, but rare cases reported malignant potential of the tumor. Therefore, complete resection is required to prevent local recurrence or distant metastasis. CASE PRESENTATION: A 53-year-old woman was admitted for follow-up colonoscopy who underwent the colorectal endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) of a laterally spreading tumor at the hepatic flexure 6 months ago. A colonoscopy showed a polypoid mass about 3.5 × 2.5 cm at the previous ESD site. As endoscopic finding showed a smooth multi-nodular tumor without submucosal invasion, we performed endoscopic mucosal resection. Based on pathological and immunohistochemical findings, the lesion was diagnosed as a GCT-ST in the colon. Follow-up colonoscopy performed 6 months later revealed no evidence of recurrence. CONCLUSION: This is the first report of a GCT-ST identified in the colon. Although GCT-ST generally has a benign clinical course, complete resection should be performed to prevent local recurrence and metastasis.

Micro-magnetic stimulation of primary visual cortex induces focal and sustained activation of secondary visual cortex.

Cortical visual prostheses that aim to restore sight to the blind require the ability to create neural activity in the visual cortex. Electric stimulation delivered via microelectrodes implanted in the primary visual cortex (V1) has been the most common approach, although conventional electrodes may not effectively confine activation to focal regions and thus the acuity they create may be limited. Magnetic stimulation from microcoils confines activation to single cortical columns of V1 and thus may prove to be more effective than conventional microelectrodes, but the ability of microcoils to drive synaptic connections has not been explored. Here, we show that magnetic stimulation of V1 using microcoils induces spatially confined activation in the secondary visual cortex (V2) in mouse brain slices. Single-loop microcoils were fabricated using platinum-iridium flat microwires, and their effectiveness was evaluated using calcium imaging and compared with that of monopolar and bipolar electrodes. Our results show that compared to the electrodes, the microcoils better confined activation to a small region in V1. In addition, they produced more precise and sustained activation in V2. The finding that microcoil-based stimulation propagates to higher visual centres raises the possibility that complex visual perception, e.g. that requiring sustained synaptic inputs, may be achievable. This article is part of the theme issue 'Advanced neurotechnologies: translating innovation for health and well-being'.

Microscale Physiological Events on the Human Cortical Surface.

Despite ongoing advances in our understanding of local single-cellular and network-level activity of neuronal populations in the human brain, extraordinarily little is known about their "intermediate" microscale local circuit dynamics. Here, we utilized ultra-high-density microelectrode arrays and a rare opportunity to perform intracranial recordings across multiple cortical areas in human participants to discover three distinct classes of cortical activity that are not locked to ongoing natural brain rhythmic activity. The first included fast waveforms similar to extracellular single-unit activity. The other two types were discrete events with slower waveform dynamics and were found preferentially in upper cortical layers. These second and third types were also observed in rodents, nonhuman primates, and semi-chronic recordings from humans via laminar and Utah array microelectrodes. The rates of all three events were selectively modulated by auditory and electrical stimuli, pharmacological manipulation, and cold saline application and had small causal co-occurrences. These results suggest that the proper combination of high-resolution microelectrodes and analytic techniques can capture neuronal dynamics that lay between somatic action potentials and aggregate population activity. Understanding intermediate microscale dynamics in relation to single-cell and network dynamics may reveal important details about activity in the full cortical circuit.

Association between Retinal Vein Occlusion and Psoriasis in Korea: A Nationwide Population-based Prospective Cohort Study.

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease imparting increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. Until now, few studies have reported an increased incidence of ophthalmological retinal vasculopathy in individuals with psoriasis. This study aimed to investigate the association between psoriasis and retinal vein occlusion in the Korean population. Data collected by the National Health Insurance Service between 2009 and 2015 in Korea were analysed. Participants who underwent national health examinations from 2009 to 2012 were enrolled in this study and were divided into either the psoriasis group (n = 3,088) or the control group (n = 465,205). All occurrences of retinal vein occlusion were observed, and the incidence rate of retinal vein occlusion was compared between the psoriasis and control groups. A Cox proportional hazards regression analysis was used to assess the association between psoriasis and newly developed retinal vein occlusion. During a mean 4.37-year follow-up period, 2,034 patients developed retinal vein occlusion. According to multivariable Cox proportional hazard models, individuals with psoriasis had a significantly higher risk of retinal vein occlusion compared with controls (hazard ratio 1.72, 95% confidence interval 1.18-2.51) after adjustments for covariates. This study found that psoriasis was positively associated with retinal vein occlusion.

The association of Serratus Anterior Plane blocks with postoperative opioid use and analgesia following simple lumpectomy: a retrospective cohort analysis.

BACKGROUND: The potential benefit of regional interventions for simple lumpectomy breast cancer surgeries has not been well investigated. Understanding which patients to not offer a regional intervention to can be just as important as knowing which would benefit. It is unclear whether fascial plane blocks, such as serratus anterior plane (SAP) block, should be routinely performed for less extensive breast surgeries. Therefore, our goal in this retrospective cohort study was to evaluate the association of integrating SAP blocks into a standard perioperative multimodal analgesia plan in patients undergoing simple lumpectomies (without node biopsies) with perioperative opioid consumption. As secondary outcomes, we also analyzed postoperative pain scores and post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) length of stay. METHODS: This was a single institution retrospective cohort study (surgical site infiltration only versus SAP block cohorts) assessing the association of SAP blocks to our outcomes of interest. In the adjusted analysis, we created matched cohorts using 1:1 (surgical site infiltration only: SAP block) propensity-score matching using nearest neighbor-matching without replacement. To compare the primary and secondary outcomes in the matched cohorts, we used the Wilcoxon signed rank test. A P-value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: There were 419 patients included in the analysis, in which 116 (27.7%) received a SAP block preoperatively in addition to our standard perioperative analgesia plan. In an unadjusted analysis, no differences were seen in perioperative opioid consumption, PACU pain scores, and PACU length of stay. Among the matched cohorts, the median [quartile] perioperative opioid consumption in the surgical site infiltration only versus SAP block cohorts were 10 mg [10, 13.25 mg] and 10 mg [7, 15 mg], respectively (P = 0.16). No differences were seen in the other outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we evaluated the impact of SAP blocks on patients undergoing simple lumpectomies, which are relatively less involved breast surgeries. We concluded that routine use of preoperative regional anesthesia is not beneficial for these specific patients. Future studies should focus on identifying patients that would directly benefit from regional interventions.

A Layer-by-Layer Assembly Route to Electroplated Fibril-Based 3D Porous Current Collectors for Energy Storage Devices.

Electrical conductivity, mechanical flexibility, and large electroactive surface areas are the most important factors in determining the performance of various flexible electrodes in energy storage devices. Herein, a layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly-induced metal electrodeposition approach is introduced to prepare a variety of highly porous 3D-current collectors with high flexibility, metallic conductivity, and large surface area. In this study, a few metal nanoparticle (NP) layers are LbL-assembled onto insulating paper for the preparation of conductive paper. Subsequent Ni electroplating of the metal NP-coated substrates reduces the sheet resistance from ≈103 to <0.1 Ω sq-1 while maintaining the porous structure of the pristine paper. Particularly, this approach is completely compatible with commercial electroplating processes, and thus can be directly extended to electroplating applications using a variety of other metals in addition to Ni. After depositing high-energy MnO NPs onto Ni-electroplated papers, the areal capacitance increases from 68 to 811 mF cm-2 as the mass loading of MnO NPs increases from 0.16 to 4.31 mg cm-2 . When metal NPs are periodically LbL-assembled with the MnO NPs, the areal capacitance increases to 1710 mF cm-2 .

Bone marrow CX3CR1+ mononuclear cells relay a systemic microbiota signal to control hematopoietic progenitors in mice.

The microbiota regulate hematopoiesis in the bone marrow (BM); however, the detailed mechanisms remain largely unknown. In this study, we explored how microbiota-derived molecules (MDMs) were transferred to the BM and sensed by the local immune cells to control hematopoiesis under steady-state conditions. We reveal that MDMs, including bacterial DNA (bDNA), reach the BM via systemic blood circulation and are captured by CX3CR1+ mononuclear cells (MNCs). CX3CR1+ MNCs sense MDMs via endolysosomal Toll-like receptors (TLRs) to produce inflammatory cytokines, which control the basal expansion of hematopoietic progenitors, but not hematopoietic stem cells, and their differentiation potential toward myeloid lineages. CX3CR1+ MNCs colocate with hematopoietic progenitors at the perivascular region, and the depletion of CX3CR1+ MNCs impedes bDNA influx into the BM. Moreover, the abrogation of TLR pathways in CX3CR1+ MNCs abolished the microbiota effect on hematopoiesis. These studies demonstrate that systemic MDMs control BM hematopoiesis by producing CX3CR1+ MNC-mediated cytokines in the steady-state.

Peroxidasin is essential for endothelial cell survival and growth signaling by sulfilimine crosslink-dependent matrix assembly.

Peroxidasin (PXDN) has been reported to crosslink the C-terminal non-collagenous domains of collagen IV (Col IV) by forming covalent sulfilimine bond. Here, we explored the physiological role of PXDN and its mechanism of action in endothelial cell survival and growth. Silencing of PXDN using siRNAs decreased cell proliferation without increase of the number of detached cells and decreased cell viability under serum-starved condition with increased fragmented nuclei and caspase 3/7 activity. Conditioned medium (CM) containing wild-type PXDN restored the proliferation of PXDN-depleted cells, but CM containing mutant PXDN with deletion of either N-terminal extracellular matrix (ECM) motifs or peroxidase domain failed to restore PXDN function. Accordingly, anti-PXDN antibody [raised against IgC2 (3-4) subdomain within ECM motifs] and peroxidase inhibitor phloroglucinol prevented the rescue of the PXDN-depleted cells by PXDN-containing CM. PXDN depletion resulted in loss of sulfilimine crosslinks, and decreased dense fibrillar network assembly of not only Col IV, but also fibronectin and laminin like in Col IV knockdown. Exogenous PXDN-containing CM restored ECM assembly as well as proliferation of PXDN-depleted cells. Accordingly, purified recombinant PXDN protein restored the proliferation and ECM assembly, and prevented cell death of the PXDN-depleted cells. PXDN depletion also showed reduced growth factors-induced phosphorylation of FAK and ERK1/2. In addition, siPXDN-transfected cell-derived matrix failed to provide full ECM-mediated activation of FAK and ERK1/2. These results indicate that both the ECM motifs and peroxidase activity are essential for the cellular function of PXDN and that PXDN is crucial for ECM assembly for survival and growth signaling.

Effect of prophylactic clip application for the prevention of postpolypectomy bleeding of large pedunculated colonic polyps: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Prophylactic application of a hemoclip has been suggested as an alternative to the use of an endoloop for the prevention of postpolypectomy bleeding (PPB) when resecting large, pedunculated colorectal polyps. Therefore, this multicenter, randomized controlled trial investigated the efficacy of prophylactic hemoclip application to reduce PPB during the resection of large pedunculated polyps. METHODS: Large pedunculated polyps (≥10 mm in head diameter) were eligible for inclusion. Polyps were randomized into a study arm (where clips were applied before resection) and a control arm (without pretreatment). The primary outcome was the rate of PPB in each group. PPB included immediate PPB (IPPB) and delayed PPB (DPPB). IPPB was defined as blood oozing (≥1 minute) or active spurting occurring immediately after polyp resection. DPPB was defined as rectal bleeding, occurring after completion of the colonoscopy. RESULTS: In total, 238 polyps from 204 patients were randomized into the clip arm (119 polyps) or the control arm (119 polyps). Overall bleeding adverse events were observed in 20 cases (IPPB, 16; DPPB, 4). The rate of overall PPB, IPPB, and DPPB was 8.4%, 6.7%, and 1.7%, respectively, for all polyps. The rate of overall PPB (clip 4.2% vs control 12.6%, P = .033) and IPPB (clip 2.5% vs control 10.9%, P = .017) was significantly lower in the clip arm than the control arm. CONCLUSIONS: Prophylactic clipping before resecting large pedunculated polyps can reduce overall PPB and IPPB compared with no prior treatment. Therefore, prophylactic clipping may be considered before resection of large pedunculated polyps. (Clinical trial registration number: NCT02156193.).

Sodium Metal Anodes: Emerging Solutions to Dendrite Growth.

This comprehensive Review focuses on the key challenges and recent progress regarding sodium-metal anodes employed in sodium-metal batteries (SMBs). The metal anode is the essential component of emerging energy storage systems such as sodium sulfur and sodium selenium, which are discussed as example full-cell applications. We begin with a description of the differences in the chemical and physical properties of Na metal versus the oft-studied Li metal, and a corresponding discussion regarding the number of ways in which Na does not follow Li-inherited paradigms in its electrochemical behavior. We detail the major challenges for Na-metal systems that at this time limit the feasibility of SMBs. The core Na anode problems are the following interrelated degradation mechanisms: An unstable solid electrolyte interphase with most organic electrolytes, "mossy" and "lath-like" metal dendrite growth for liquid systems, poor Coulombic efficiency, and gas evolution. Even solid-state Na batteries are not immune, with metal dendrites being reported. The solutions may be subdivided into the following interrelated taxonomy: Improved electrolytes and electrolyte additives tailored for Na-metal anodes, interfacial engineering between the metal and the liquid or solid electrolyte, electrode architectures that both reduce the current density during plating-stripping and serve as effective hosts that shield the Na metal from excessive reactions, and alloy design to tune the bulk properties of the metal per se. For instance, stable plating-stripping of Na is extremely difficult with conventional carbonate solvents but has been reported with ethers and glymes. Solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) such as beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), sodium superionic conductor (NASICON), and sodium thiophosphate (75Na2S·25P2S5) present highly exciting opportunities for SMBs that avoid the dangers of flammable liquids. Even SSEs are not immune to dendrites, however, which grow through the defects in the bulk pellet, but may be controlled through interfacial energy modification. We conclude with a discussion of the key research areas that we feel are the most fruitful for further pursuit. In our opinion, greatly improved understanding and control of the SEI structure is the key to cycling stability. A holistic approach involving complementary post-mortem, in situ, and operando analyses to elucidate full battery cell level structure-performance relations is advocated.