Prevalence of developmental delay among children: A national study based on administrative database of the single-payer National Health Insurance System in Taiwan.

BACKGROUND: Developmental delay (DD) indicates a failure to meet the developmental milestones of most children of the same age. Studies based solely on the ICD coding manual may underestimate the prevalence of DD. Real-world use of rehabilitation data may be useful in the identification of more DD children previously undiagnosed with DD. AIM: The aim of this study is to estimate the prevalence of DD among children aged 0-6 by age and sex in Taiwan based on modified ICD codes. METHODS: A list of ICD codes specific to DD (including delays and disabilities requiring early intervention) was generated from the existing ICD codebook and modified based on National Health Insurance (NHI) claims data pertaining to developmental rehabilitation of children aged 0-6. The validity of the codes was subsequently assessed by DD experts in various fields using the consensus development technique. The resulting list was used to estimate the prevalence of DD among children in Taiwan from 2000 to 2015 based on analysis of longitudinal NHI data. RESULT: Between 2000 and 2015, the prevalence of DD among children aged 0 to 6 years increased from 2.0% to 5.7%, and the sex ratio was 181-197 males per 100 females. The prevalence estimate obtained in this study (5.6%) was 229% higher than existing government statistics (1.6%) published in 2014. CONCLUSIONS: The codes developed using claims data in this study can be used to estimate the prevalence of DD among children and evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programmes. Consistent increases in the prevalence of DD indicate that efforts to promote early intervention have been effective. Nonetheless, the low prevalence rate among 0-2 years children with developmental delay and low prevalence rate of female CWDD means that the policy should notice the lack of access to healthcare services for infants and female children and produce a more equitable or fair distribution of healthcare resources.

Effectiveness of hospital emergency department regionalization and categorization policy on appropriate patient emergency care use: a nationwide observational study in Taiwan.

BACKGROUND: Emergency department (ED) overcrowding is a health services issue worldwide. Modern health policy emphasizes appropriate health services utilization. However, the relationship between accessibility, capability, and appropriateness of ED use is unknown. Thus, this study aimed to examine the effect of hospital ED regionalization policy and categorization of hospital emergency capability policy (categorization policy) on patient-appropriate ED use. METHODS: Taiwan implemented a nationwide three-tiered hospital ED regionalization and categorization of hospital emergency capability policies in 2007 and 2009, respectively. We conducted a retrospective observational study on the effect of emergency care policy intervention on patient visit. Between 2005 and 2011, the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database recorded 1,835,860 ED visits from 1 million random samples. ED visits were categorized using the Yang-Ming modified New York University-ED algorithm. A time series analysis was performed to examine the change in appropriate ED use rate after policy implementation. RESULTS: From 2005 to 2011, total ED visits increased by 10.7%. After policy implementation, the average appropriate ED visit rate was 66.9%. The intervention had no significant effect on the trend of appropriate ED visit rate. CONCLUSIONS: Although regionalization and categorization policies did increase emergency care accessibility, it had no significant effect on patient-appropriate ED use. Further research is required to improve data-driven policymaking.

Choosing and Doing wisely: triage level I resuscitation a possible new field for starting palliative care and avoiding low-value care - a nationwide matched-pair retrospective cohort study in Taiwan.

BACKGROUND: The association between palliative care and life-sustaining treatment following emergency department (ED) resuscitation is unclear. This study aims to analyze the usage of palliative care and life-sustaining treatments among ED triage level I resuscitation patients based on a nationally representative sample of patients in Taiwan. METHODS: A matched-pair retrospective cohort study was conducted to examine the association between palliative care and outcome variables using multivariate logistic regression and Kaplan-Meier survival analyses. Between 2009 and 2013, 336 ED triage level I resuscitation patients received palliative care services (palliative care group) under a universal health insurance scheme. Retrospective cohort matching was performed with those who received standard care at a ratio of 1:4 (usual care group). Outcome variables included the number of visits to emergency and outpatient departments, hospitalization duration, total medical expenses, utilization of life-sustaining treatments, and duration of survival following ED triage level I resuscitation. RESULTS: The mean survival duration following level I resuscitation was less than 1 year. Palliative care was administered to 15% of the resuscitation cohort. The palliative care group received significantly less life-sustaining treatment than did the usual care group. CONCLUSION: Among patients who underwent level I resuscitation, palliative care was inversely correlated with the scope of life-sustaining treatments. Furthermore, triage level I resuscitation status may present a possible new field for starting palliative care intervention and reducing low-value care.

Dual Use of E-Cigarettes and Traditional Cigarettes Among Adolescents in Taiwan, 2014-2016.

Introduction: We investigated the use of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) with traditional cigarettes among adolescents during 2014 to 2016 to identify risk factors for using e-cigarettes only, traditional cigarettes only, or both products. Methods: We used cross-sectional data from the Taiwan Global Youth Tobacco Survey, (conducted over a 3-year period by the Health Promotion Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taiwan), which is representative of tobacco use among adolescents aged 12-18 years. The outcome variable was smoking behavior. Dependent variables included gender, grade, monthly income/allowance, parents' educational level, parents' smoking status, close friends' smoking status, use of other tobacco products, contact with cigarette/e-cigarette advertisements, and access to free cigarettes/e-cigarettes. Multinomial regression identify factors influencing the smoking behaviors of adolescents, as manifested in the use of traditional cigarettes only, e-cigarettes only, e-cigarettes with traditional cigarettes, and nonsmoking. Results: When weighted to the population, the sample included 1723150 adolescents in 2014, 1691568 adolescents in 2015, and 1627216 adolescents in 2016. The rates averaged over three years were as follows: nonsmoking (91.6%), traditional cigarettes only (5.4%), e-cigarettes only (1.5%), and dual usage (1.6%). Among adolescents in Taiwan, the following were risk factors for dual use: male, older, high monthly allowance, smoking parents, smoking friends, use of other tobacco products, contact with cigarette advertisements, and access to free cigarettes. Conclusions: Our results revealed an increase in the number of adolescents using e-cigarettes with traditional cigarettes. We recommend that the government continue smoking cessation programs while maintaining control over advertisements and promotions for tobacco products. Implications: This is the first study to examine the dual use of e-cigarettes and traditional cigarettes among adolescents in Taiwan. This study identified the risk factors of using traditional cigarettes only, using e-cigarettes only, and the dual use of e-cigarettes and traditional cigarettes, with nonsmokers used as a reference group. This study examined the relationship between exposure to cigarette promotions and the use of various tobacco products including the dual use of e-cigarettes and traditional cigarettes, both of which have been disregarded in previous studies.

Socioeconomic disparities in preventable hospitalization among adults with diabetes in Taiwan: a multilevel modelling approach.

INTRODUCTION: Literature shows socioeconomic disparities are related to various aspects of diabetes care. However, few studies have explored the relationship between socioeconomics and healthcare outcomes, particularly with regard to preventable hospitalization. This cohort study employed hierarchical modelling to evaluate the role of socioeconomics at both the individual and regional levels in order to examine disparities associated with the preventable hospitalization of diabetes patients in Taiwan. METHODS: This study employed the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database 2010, which provided a representative cohort comprising one million people enrolled in Taiwan's National Health Insurance in 2010. All diabetes patients aged 18 and older who received regular care in 2010 were included in this study. The outcome examined in this study was diabetes-related preventable hospitalization during the period of 2010 to 2011. Socioeconomic status at the individual level was measured according to income and at the regional level according to level of urbanization and the proportion of residents who had completed college education. Control variables included age, gender, comorbidities, time of diabetes diagnosis, participated in the pay-for-performance program status, and the characteristics of regular sources of care, including the level of the facility (i.e., medical centre, regional hospital, local hospital, outpatient clinic) and ownership. Statistical analysis was performed using generalized linear mixed models. RESULTS: A total of 57,791 patients from 25 regions diagnosed with type-2 diabetes mellitus were identified in the National Health Insurance claim data for the year 2010. 1040 of these patients (1.8%) had at least one diabetes-related preventable hospitalization event during the period of 2010-2011. After controlling for the characteristics of patients and health care providers, our results show that dependents and patients in low and middle income brackets (OR = 2.48, 2.44, and 2.08 respectively) as well as those living in regions with a low, median, or high education bracket (OR = 1.32, 1.38, and 1.46 respectively) face a higher probability of preventable hospitalization. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that the socioeconomic effects of higher education at the regional level as well as income at the individual level are important factors which affect disparities in diabetes-related preventable hospitalization.

A cost-benefit analysis of the outpatient smoking cessation services in Taiwan from a societal viewpoint.

INTRODUCTION: This study applied a cost-benefit analysis from a societal viewpoint to evaluate the Outpatient Smoking Cessation Services (OSCS) program. METHODS: The costs measured in this study include the cost to the health sector, non-health sectors, the patients and their family, as well as the loss of productivity as a result of smoking. The benefits measured the medical costs savings and the earnings due to the increased life expectancy of a person that has stopped smoking for 15 years. Data were obtained from the primary data of a telephone survey, the literatures and reports from the Outpatient Smoking Cessation Management Center and government. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to verify the robustness of the results. RESULTS: There were 169,761 cases that participated in the outpatient smoking cessation program in the years 2007 and 2008, of those cases, 8,282 successfully stopped smoking. The total cost of the OSCS program was 18 million USD. The total benefits of the program were 215 million USD with a 3% discount rate; the net benefit to society was 196 million USD. After conducting sensitivity analyses on the different abstinence, relapse, and discount rates, from a societal perspective, the benefits still far exceeded the costs, while from a health care perspective, there was only a net benefit when the respondent's abstinence rate was used. CONCLUSIONS: From a societal perspective, the OSCS program in Taiwan is cost-beneficial. This study provides partial support for the policy makers to increase the budget and expand the OSCS program.

Differences in patient reports on the quality of care in a diabetes pay-for-performance program between 1 year enrolled and newly enrolled patients.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the quality of care from the perspective of patients who participated in the diabetes pay-for-performance (P4P) program in Taiwan. DESIGN: A cross-sectional telephone interview to measure the quality of care for patients with diabetes mellitus. SETTING: A stratified sampling according to the level and region of the health-care providers in Taiwan. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1796 patients with diabetes mellitus responded to the telephone survey. INTERVENTIONS: The patients were divided into two groups according to the length of time they had participated in the program: (1) the case group, who had received comprehensive care for at least 1 year and (2) the control group, who were newly enrolled in the diabetes mellitus P4P program for <3 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The compliance of diabetes self-care and the level of satisfaction with the quality of care from the perspective of the patients. RESULTS: After controlling for the characteristics of the health-care providers involved, pattern of diabetes treatment, self-reported health status and other patient characteristics, the case group performed better in exercise, had regular medication and better foot care and showed overall compliance with diabetes self-care and perceived better quality of care than the control group. CONCLUSIONS: The patients who had received comprehensive care for 1 year showed better compliance with self-care and were more satisfied with the quality of care they had received. The P4P program appears to be associated with this enhanced care.

Copayment policy reforms and effective care utilization by patients with persistent asthma in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVES: Reforms to the Taiwan National Health Insurance copayment scheme in 2005 imposed a notable increase in the cost of outpatient visits. This provided an ideal situation to determine whether such reforms lead to a reduction in the utilization of effective care by patients with persistent asthma. METHODS: This study applied the pretest-posttest non-randomized control group design in our analysis of nationwide claims data (2002 to 2010). Based on propensity score matching, the patients were divided into two groups, subject and not subject to copayment reform. Medication Management for People with Asthma measure was used to identify patients with persistent asthma and instances of effective care. RESULTS: Matching yielded a final panel of 7,890 individuals with persistent asthma (3,945 individuals in each cohort) eligible for the study. GEE analysis revealed that policy reforms had significant effects over the short-term (OR = 0.745, p < 0.05), medium-term (OR = 0.752, p < 0.01), and long-term (OR = 0.721, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Reforms to copayment policy were significantly correlated with a reduction in the utilization of effective care by patients with persistent asthma over the short-, medium- and long-term. Government should develop implementation strategies aimed at protecting the economically disadvantaged patients.

The Impact of Multiple Long-Term Care Services Use on Dementia and Nondementia Caregivers' Health Care Utilization and Costs.

BACKGROUND: The study examined the effects of multiple long-term care (LTC) services (i.e., using both social and professional care services) on caregivers of service recipients with and without dementia. METHODS: We retrieved data for 10,771 caregivers of older adults in the Ten-Year Long-Term Care Project (TLTCP) in Taiwan. We examined the effects of care recipients' initial prescription of single or multiple LTC services on their caregivers' healthcare services use, including outpatient, emergency department (ED), and inpatient services. RESULTS: For care recipients prescribed a single LTC service, dementia caregivers had 0.82 more ED visits and 10.4% higher total fees than nondementia caregivers (p < .05). However, for care recipients prescribed multiple LTC services, dementia caregivers and nondementia caregivers used healthcare services at similar levels, and dementia caregivers had 3.5% lower per-visit outpatient fees (p < .05). DISCUSSION: Providing multiple LTC services for people with dementia results in great benefit to their caregivers.

Predictors of subjective and objective caregiving burden in older female caregivers of adults with intellectual disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Informal, unpaid, and lifelong older caregivers of adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) are usually female and most often are mothers of adults with ID. However, research exploring different predictors of subjective and objective burden among these older female caregivers is sparse. The objective of this study was to examine whether the subjective and objective burden as well as positive appraisals are predicted by the same or different variables linked to the caregivers and the adults with ID. METHODS: Face-to-face interview questionnaires were administered in a city in Taiwan in 2006-2007 and 350 female family caregivers aged 55 years and older completed the interview in their homes. The independent variables included adult care demands and caregiver variables, while the dependent variables were caregivers' subjective burden, caregivers' objective burden and caregivers' positive appraisals. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that adult care demands were associated more with the objective than the subjective caregiving burden. The strongest predictors of both subjective and objective burden were the care recipient's instrumental activities of daily living functionality, caregiver's age, and caregiver's health status. The significant predictors for positive caregiving appraisals were the caregiver's age and the caregiver's level of social support. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that both the subjective and objective burdens were mostly related to the same factors, that is, to the characteristics of the older female caregivers and the recipients of care with ID. On the other hand, positive attitudes towards caregiving roles were only associated with caregiver variables.

Diffusion patterns of new anti-diabetic drugs into hospitals in Taiwan: the case of thiazolidinediones for diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Diffusion of new drugs in the health care market affects patients' access to new treatment options and health care expenditures. We examined how a new drug class for diabetes mellitus, thiazolidinediones (TZDs), diffused in the health care market in Taiwan. METHODS: Assuming that monthly hospital prescriptions of TZDs could serve as a micro-market to perform drug penetration studies, we retrieved monthly TZD prescription data for 580 hospitals in Taiwan from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database for the period between March 1, 2001 and December 31, 2005. Three diffusion parameters, time to adoption, speed of penetration (monthly growth on prescriptions), and peak penetration (maximum monthly prescription) were evaluated. Cox proportional hazards model and quantile regressions were estimated for analyses on the diffusion parameters. RESULTS: Prior hospital-level pharmaceutical prescription concentration significantly deterred the adoption of the new drug class (HR: 0.02, 95%CI = 0.01 to 0.04). Adoption of TZDs was slower in district hospitals (HR = 0.43, 95%CI = 0.24 to 0.75) than medical centers and faster in non-profit hospitals than public hospitals (HR = 1.79, 95%CI = 1.23 to 2.61). Quantile regression showed that penetration speed was associated with a hospital's prior anti-diabetic prescriptions (25%Q: 18.29; 50%Q: 25.57; 75%Q: 30.97). Higher peaks were found in hospitals that had adopted TZD early (25%Q: -40.33; 50%Q: -38.65; 75%Q: -32.29) and in hospitals in which the drugs penetrated more quickly (25%Q: 16.53; 50%Q: 24.91; 75%Q: 31.50). CONCLUSIONS: Medical centers began to prescribe TZDs earlier, and they prescribed more TZDs at a faster pace. The TZD diffusion patterns varied among hospitals depending accreditation level, ownership type, and prescription volume of Anti-diabetic drugs.

Using a Montessori method to increase eating ability for institutionalised residents with dementia: a crossover design.

AIMS: To investigate the efficacy of applying a Montessori intervention to improve the eating ability and nutritional status of residents with dementia in long-term care facilities. BACKGROUND: An early intervention for eating difficulties in patients with dementia can give them a better chance of maintaining independence and reduce the risk of malnutrition. METHODS: An experimental crossover design was employed. Twenty-nine residents were chosen from two dementia special care units in metropolitan Taipei. To avoid contamination between participants in units using both Montessori and control interventions, two dementia special care units were randomly assigned into Montessori intervention (I1) and routine activities (I2) sequence groups. A two-period crossover design was used, with 15 residents assigned to Montessori intervention sequence I (I1, I2) and 14 residents assigned to Montessori intervention sequence II (I2, I1). On each intervention day, residents were given their assigned intervention. Montessori intervention was provided in 30-min sessions once every day, three days per week, for eight weeks. There was a two-week washout period between each intervention. RESULTS: There was a significant reduction in the Edinburgh Feeding Evaluation in Dementia score for the Montessori intervention period but not for the routine activities period, while the mean differences for the Eating Behavior Scale score, self-feeding frequency and self-feeding time were significantly higher than those of the routine activities period. Except for the Mini-Nutritional Assessment score post-test being significantly less than the pre-test for the routine activities period, no significant differences for any other variables were found for the routine activities period. CONCLUSION: This study confirms the efficacy of a Montessori intervention protocol on eating ability of residents with dementia. Adopting Montessori intervention protocols to maintain residents' self-feeding ability in clinical practice is recommended. RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE: Montessori-based activities could provide caregivers with an evidence-based nursing strategy to deal with eating difficulties of people with dementia.

The impact of different patterns of home- and community-based services on nursing home admission: National data from Taiwan.

BACKGROUND: This study had two aims: (a) to identify the different patterns of use of home- and community-based services (HCBS) among older adults in Taiwan, and (b) to examine the effects of the different use patterns on HCBS recipients' use of institutional long-term care services. METHODS: The study analyzed cohort data from Taiwan's first National 10-Year Long-Term Care Plan database and from National Health Insurance Claim Data. We extracted baseline information on older adults who were first evaluated for and prescribed HCBS from 2010 through 2013 (N = 71,260). We used latent class analysis to specify the underlying subgroups of recipients with similar patterns of HCBS use. We used hierarchical multinomial logistic regression to examine the effect of the different use patterns on the risk of institutional (e.g., nursing home) placement from 4 to 15 months after initial HCBS evaluation. RESULTS: Four subgroups of HCBS recipients were identified, with patterns of home-based personal care (PC), home-based personal care and medical care (PC/MC), home-based medical care (MC), and community care services. Compared to the home-based PC/MC group, people in the home-based MC group had lower risk (OR = 0.54) and people in the community care group had higher risk (OR = 1.76) of admission to a nursing home. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings may provide insights for policy makers regarding the usefulness of integrating medical care and other types of long-term care services into adult day care.

The impact of universal National Health Insurance on population health: the experience of Taiwan.

BACKGROUND: Taiwan established a system of universal National Health Insurance (NHI) in March, 1995. Today, the NHI covers more than 98% of Taiwan's population and enrollees enjoy almost free access to healthcare with small co-payment by most clinics and hospitals. Yet while this expansion of coverage will almost inevitably have improved access to health care, however, it cannot be assumed that it will necessarily have improved the health of the population. The aim of this study was to determine whether the introduction of National Health Insurance (NHI) in Taiwan in 1995 was associated with a change in deaths from causes amenable to health care. METHODS: Identification of discontinuities in trends in mortality considered amenable to health care and all other conditions (non-amenable mortality) using joinpoint regression analysis from 1981 to 2005. RESULTS: Deaths from amenable causes declined between 1981 and 1993 but slowed between 1993 and 1996. Once NHI was implemented, the decline accelerated significantly, falling at 5.83% per year between 1996 and 1999. In contrast, there was little change in non-amenable causes (0.64% per year between 1981 and 1999). The effect of NHI was highest among the young and old, and lowest among those of working age, consistent with changes in the pattern of coverage. NHI was associated with substantial reductions in deaths from circulatory disorders and, for men, infections, whilst an earlier upward trend in female cancer deaths was reversed. CONCLUSIONS: NHI was associated in a reduction in deaths considered amenable to health care; particularly among those age groups least likely to have been insured previously.

Appropriateness of emergency care use: a retrospective observational study based on professional versus patients' perspectives in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: The objectives of this study are to refine the measurement of appropriate emergency department (ED) use and to provide a natural observation of appropriate ED use rates based on professional versus patient perspectives. SETTING: Taiwan has a population of 23 million, with one single-payer universal health insurance scheme. Taiwan has no limitations on ED use, and a low barrier to ED use may be a surrogate for natural observation of users' perspectives in ED use. PARTICIPANTS: In 7 years, there were 1 835 860 ED visits from one million random samples of the National Health Insurance Database. MEASURES: Appropriate ED use was determined according to professional standards, measured by the modified Billings New York University Emergency Department (NYU-ED) algorithm, and further analysed after the addition of prudent patient standards, measured by explicit process-based and outcome-based criteria. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was used to reflect the performance of appropriate ED use measures, and sensitivity analyses were conducted using different thresholds to determine the appropriateness of ED use. The generalised estimating equation model was used to measure the associations between appropriate ED use based on process and outcome criteria and covariates including sex, age, occupation, health status, place of residence, medical resources area, date and income level. RESULTS: Appropriate ED use based on professional criteria was 33.5%, which increased to 63.1% when patient criteria were added. The AUC, which combines both professional and patient criteria, was high (0.85). CONCLUSIONS: The appropriate ED use rate nearly doubled when patient criteria were added to professional criteria. Explicit process-based and outcome-based criteria may be used as a supplementary measure to the implicit modified Billings NYU-ED algorithm when determining appropriate ED use.

Comparing the Characteristics of Cigarette Smoking and e-Cigarette and IQOS Use among Adolescents in Taiwan.

Objectives: Our objective in this study was to identify the risk factors for cigarette, e-cigarette, and IQOS use among adolescents in Taiwan, with a particular focus on socioeconomic status, smoking status of parents and peers, cigarette promotions, and anti-tobacco campaigns. Methods: Data were obtained from the 2018 version of the annual cross-sectional Taiwan Global Youth Tobacco Survey, which is used to monitor tobacco use among Taiwanese adolescents in junior and senior high schools. The dependent variables in the study were "current cigarette smoking," "current use of e-cigarettes," and "current use of IQOS devices" (i.e., during the 30 days prior to survey completion). Independent variables included gender, school grade, monthly income/allowance, educational level of parents, smoking status of parents, smoking status of close friends, access to free cigarettes, exposure to cigarette advertisements, and attendance at anti-tobacco courses. Logistic regression was used in the identification of factors correlated with the current use of cigarettes, e-cigarettes, or IQOS. Results: We determined that 5.65% of the adolescents in the study were currently using cigarettes, 2.74% were currently using e-cigarettes, and 2.33% were currently using IQOS. Our analysis revealed a number of factors that have a bearing on smoking behavior, including gender, monthly allowance, educational level of parents, smoking status of parents and close friends, access to free cigarettes, and exposure to cigarette advertisements. Conclusions: The tobacco product that was most widely used by adolescents was cigarettes, followed by e-cigarettes and IQOS. The socioeconomic status, smoking status of parents/close friends, and access to cigarettes were all identified as important factors related to the current use of cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and IQOS by adolescents.

Prevalence of heated tobacco product use among adolescents in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the penetration of heated tobacco products (HTPs) into the youth market in Taiwan, with a particular focus on the correlation between IQOS use and the usage of other tobacco products. METHODS: Data from the 2018 Global Youth Tobacco Survey were used to assess previous experience with and current use (within 30 days prior to survey completion) of IQOS products by Taiwanese students aged 12-18 years. Independent variables included the usage patterns of conventional cigarettes and e-cigarettes. The control variables included background information (gender, grade, monthly income/allowance, household educational level, smoking status at home and among close friends), access to free cigarettes, as well as exposure to cigarette advertisements and anti-tobacco courses. Logistic regression was used to identify tobacco usage patterns correlated with IQOS use. RESULTS: In 2018, 2.33% of Taiwan's adolescents were currently using IQOS and 4.17% had tried IQOS. The use of conventional cigarettes and e-cigarettes (individually and together) were associated with an elevated risk of the ever use and current use of IQOS. CONCLUSION: Despite the fact that HTP products are not sold legally in Taiwan, the use of IQOS products by young people is far from negligible. We recommend amending the "Tobacco Hazards Prevention Act" to include regulations pertaining to the sale and marketing of HTPs.

Hospitalization for ambulatory-care-sensitive conditions in Taiwan following the SARS outbreak: a population-based interrupted time series study.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: In 2003, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) outbreak resulted in 8096 probable cases and 774 deaths in 26 countries. The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of the SARS outbreak on hospitalization for chronic ambulatory-care-sensitive conditions (ACSCs) in Taiwan. METHODS: We applied a population-based interrupted time series study design and used the time series auto-regressive integrated moving-average model to compare the actual and predicted admission rates of seven selected chronic ACSCs. The analyses were based on National Health Insurance hospital inpatient claims data from 1997 to 2003. RESULTS: The impact of SARS on ACSCs after the outbreak varied among seven selected chronic conditions. Hospitalization for respiratory conditions was significantly lower than the predicted values, whereas hospitalization for diabetes was significantly higher than the predicted values after the outbreak. CONCLUSION: Admission rates for most ACSCs, except for diabetes, did not change in the post-SARS period. The reductions in outpatient utilization during the SARS outbreak did not appear to affect adversely admissions for most ACSCs.

Managing health expenditure inflation under a single-payer system: Taiwan's National Health Insurance.

As nations strive to achieve and sustain universal health coverage (UHC), they seek answers as to what health system structures are more effective in managing health expenditure inflation. A fundamental macro-level choice a nation has to make is whether to adopt a single- or a multiple-payer health system. Using Taiwan's National Health Insurance (NHI) as a case, this paper examines how a single-payer system manages its health expenditure growth and draws lessons for other countries whose socioeconomic development is similar to Taiwan's. Our analyses show that as a single payer, Taiwan's NHI is able to exercise its monopsony power to manage its health expenditure growth. This is achieved primarily through the adoption of a system-wide global budget. The global budget sets a hard aggregate budget cap to limit NHI's total spending to its expected revenue, with the annual budget growth rate established by a process of negotiation among key stakeholders. The global budget system is complemented by comprehensive and continuous monitoring and review of encounter records of all providers and patients, enabled by the NHI's advanced information technology. However, by paying its providers using a point-based fee schedule, Taiwan's NHI suffers from inefficient service provision. In particular, providers have incentives to increase use of services and drugs with positive profit margins. Furthermore, Taiwan demonstrates that its control of NHI expenditure growth might be leading it to inadequately meet the changing needs of the population, resulting in the rapid growth of private insurance to cover services excluded or not fully covered by the NHI. If this trend persists and results in a two-tier system, Taiwan's NHI may risk compromising the equity it has achieved in the past two decades.