Young people's reasoning about exclusion in novel groups.

This study examined children's and adolescents' reasoning about the exclusion of others in peer and school contexts. Participants (80 8-year-olds, 85 11-year-olds, 74 14-year-olds, and 73 20-year-olds) were asked to judge and reason about the acceptability of exclusion from novel groups by children and school principals. Three contexts for exclusion between two groups were systematically varied: unequal economic status, geographical location, and a control (no reason provided for group differences). Regardless of condition, participants believed that exclusion was less acceptable in peer contexts than in school contexts and when children were excluded rather than principals. Participants also used more moral and less social conventional reasoning for peer contexts than for school contexts. In terms of condition, whereas 8-year-olds rated exclusion based on unequal economic status as less acceptable than exclusion based on geographical location or no reason when enacted by a principal, 14-year-olds rated the unequal economic condition as more acceptable than the other two contexts. The 11- and 20-year-olds did not distinguish economic status differences. The findings suggest that children and adolescents are sensitive to context and take multiple variables into account, including the type of group difference (socioeconomic status or other reasons), authority status of the perpetrator of exclusion, and setting (school or peer group). Patterns may have differed from past research because of the sociocultural context in which exclusion was embedded and the contexts of group differences.

Introduction to the Special Section of Child Development on Positive Youth Development in Diverse and Global Contexts.

Positive youth development (PYD) research seeks to understand and promote positive aspects of development in young people. In this the special section, focused upon youth from diverse racial-ethnic backgrounds around the globe, we describe the origins and development of the field, identify key and emerging themes, and present the challenges for work in the area in the years ahead. Central to these are elements that are inherent in many of the articles that constitute the section: These include a need to articulate more clearly the role of social and cultural context in positive development, a need to refine the measures and methods used for collecting data, the significance of social identities, and engagement with other fields of study and with policymakers.

Conceptual Change in Science Is Facilitated Through Peer Collaboration for Boys but Not for Girls.

Three hundred and forty-one children (Mage = 9,0 years) engaged in a series of science tasks in collaborative, same-sex pairs or did not interact. All children who collaborated on the science tasks advanced in basic-level understanding of the relevant task (motion down an incline). However, only boys advanced in their conceptual understanding at a 3-week posttest. Discussion of concepts and procedural aspects of the task led to conceptual development for boys but not girls. Gender differences in behavioral style did not influence learning. Results are discussed in terms of the links between gender and engagement in conversations, and how gender differences in collaboration may relate to differences in participation in science.

Children's collaborative recall of shared and unshared information.

This study examined age differences in collaborative inhibition and the role of inter-subjectivity, collective information sampling (CIS) and collaborative inhibition for the collaborative recall of shared and unshared information in groups of 7- and 9-year-old children. Three-hundred and thirteen 7- and 9-year-old children recalled memorized wordlists either in real or nominal groups of three. All group members either recalled the same items, or each group member was given some unique items. Nine-year-olds, but not 7-year-olds, recalled significantly more items in nominal than real groups, a phenomenon called collaborative inhibition. Groups whose interactions were characterized by higher numbers of inter-subjective exchanges recalled fewer words than groups low in inter-subjectivity. In both age groups, a higher proportion of shared compared with unshared information was recalled consistent with processes of CIS. However, 7-year-olds recalled more unshared items than predicted, suggesting that collaborative inhibition additionally contributes to the recall of shared and unshared items.

Children's developing understanding of economic inequality and their place within it.

Income inequality is growing in many parts of the world and, for the poorest children in a society, is associated with multiple, negative, developmental outcomes. This review of the research literature considers how childrens' and adolescents' understanding of economic inequality changes with age. It highlights shifts in conceptual understanding (from 'having and not having', to social structural and moral explanations), moral reasoning and the impact of the agents of socialization from parents to the media and cultural norms and discourses. It also examines how social processes affect judgements and the importance of an emerging sense of self in relation to questions of economic inequality. Finally, the review covers methodological considerations and suggests pathways for future research.

Network of mental activities, cognitive function and depression in older men and women.

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests that lifestyle activities impact cognitive and mental health in older populations. However, how lifestyle factors are associated with one another, and which factors are most important for cognitive function and mental health has received comparatively little attention. DESIGN: Bayesian-Gaussian network analysis was used to investigate unique associations between mental activities (MA; i.e., activities involving cognitive engagement), global cognition, and depression at three time-points in a large sample of older adults (baseline, 2 years, and 4 years follow-up). SETTING: This study used longitudinal data from participants living in Australia and participating in the Sydney Memory and Ageing Study. PARTICIPANTS: The sample included 998 participants (55% female) aged between 70 and 90, without a diagnosis of dementia at baseline. MEASUREMENTS: Neuropsychological assessment of global cognition, self-reported depressive symptoms, and self-reported information about daily MA. RESULTS: Cognitive functioning was positively associated with playing tabletop games and using the internet in both sexes at all time-points. MA were differentially linked in men and women. Depression was not consistently associated with MA in men across the three time-points; women who visited artistic events consistently had lower depression scores. CONCLUSIONS: Engaging with tabletop games and using the internet was associated with better cognition in both sexes, however sex acted as a modifier for other associations. These findings are useful for future investigations that consider interactive associations between MA, cognition, and mental health in older adults, and their possible roles in promoting healthy aging.

Self-objectification in women predicts approval motivation in online self-presentation.

Researchers have examined self-objectification - viewing oneself as an object rather than a subject - in terms of its impact on intrapersonal factors, such as mental health and cognitive performance. However, few have examined how self-objectification relates to interpersonal factors. The present research addressed this gap by testing the impact of self-objectification on social approval motivation among women. Study 1 (n = 103) found that individual differences in self-objectification correlated positively with approval motivation. Study 2 (n = 94) replicated these results and found that women who reported higher self-objectification were more willing to modify their social media profile pictures unrealistically. In Study 3 (n = 100), higher self-objectifying women were more willing to unrealistically modify their profile pictures even if this exceeded normative levels, which was replicated in Study 4 (n = 199). These results suggest that women's self-objectification is associated with a desire for approval from others and this desire manifests in a willingness to modify self-presentation.

The influence of gender and ethnicity on children's peer collaborations.

Gender and ethnicity are important aspects of children's everyday social relationships, yet little is known about how these social categories influence children's collaborative interactions. In the present study, 322 White (Caucasian) and South Asian boys and girls (mean age, 7.5 years) collaborated in pairs on easy and difficult versions of a model completion task. As expected, girls were less assertive than boys in conversation, yet this relation held only for all-Asian pairs (i.e., an Asian boy and girl in conversation). Also consistent with expectations, levels of conversational affiliation were lowest in cross-ethnic interaction. The influence of gender and ethnicity on conversations did not vary in light of contrasting cognitive demands of the tasks. Results are discussed in relation to work on effective peer collaboration and the potential role of contact in promoting positive ethnic and gender group attitudes.

Conversation, development, and gender: a study of changes in children's concepts of punishment.

One hundred thirty-three children, average age 9.58 years, were read vignettes describing a moral transgression and then discussed what would constitute a fair punishment. Children's gender influenced conversation dynamics (use of interruption and other simultaneous speech) but not conversation content (justifications for judgments). All children who engaged in conversation showed development in judgments after 8 weeks compared with a control (no interaction) group. However, there was no relation between conversation dynamics or content and development, or any effects of gender, on the developmental process. The benefits of peer collaboration were general rather than specific to the stimulus story.

The influence of race and gender on children's conversations and playmate choices.

The present study examined the influence of race and gender on children's conversations and friendship choices. Four hundred and twenty-eight children (M age = 7.5 years, SD = 0.34) from 2 racial minority groups (i.e., African Caribbean and South Asian) and the racial majority group (i.e., European) chose a picture of a playmate together with a peer. Race influenced the levels of assertion and affiliation in children's conversations. The effects of race on conversation also varied according to the gender of the children involved in interaction. Same-race pairs tended to choose in-group playmates, but same-race minority pairs showed less marked in-group preference. Cross-race pairs selected a majority-group child as a playmate most often.

Gender, gender relations, and the social dynamics of children's conversations.

The authors investigated the effects of gender on the social dynamics and outcomes of conversations involving 120 children (mean age = 8 years 7 months). Children were taught particular values for different shaped counters and placed in same-gender or mixed-gender pairs with children who were taught different values. Pairs were asked to add the counters together to make a total of 100. Conversations were coded in terms of communication acts and simultaneous speech acts. Boys used more controlling acts overall and more negative interruptions in mixed-gender pairs. Girls used more affiliating acts. All children used more collaborative communication in same-gender pairings. Children whose perspective dominated used more controlling and comparatively fewer affiliating acts. When children reached a compromise, conversations were more collaborative.

How do groups work? Age differences in performance and the social outcomes of peer collaboration.

Do children derive different benefits from group collaboration at different ages? In the present study, 183 children from two age groups (8.8 and 13.4 years) took part in a class quiz as members of a group, or individually. In some groups, cohesiveness was made salient by awarding prizes to the top performing groups. In other groups, prizes were awarded to the best performing individuals. Findings, both in terms of social outcomes and performance in the quiz, indicated that the 8-year olds viewed the benefits of group membership in terms of the opportunities to receive information from other members. The 13-year olds, in contrast, viewed group collaboration as a constructive process where success was connected with group cohesiveness.

Argument structure, argument content, and cognitive change in children's peer interaction.

In this experimental study, the author examined whether children's conversations play a role in the processes of influence between peers. Children, aged 8 to 10 years, who were at different levels of moral development participated. The conversations of 120 children were coded and analyzed in terms of argument structure and content. Results indicated that the differences in structure between boys' and girls' arguments are stylistic and do not influence conversation outcomes. The children's use of the structural features of conversations suggested that when a more advanced position is adopted, the arguments themselves appear to inspire cognitive change. However, when a less advanced position is adopted, the children who influence their peers invoke a particular and insistent conversational style. Results are discussed in terms of transmission and constructivist accounts of the role of social interaction in cognitive development.

How do children share information in groups?

Group decision making should be particularly beneficial when group members share unique information, because then a group can make a better decision than each group member alone. This study examined how elementary-school children share unique information during group decision making. Seventy-nine groups of 3 same-sex and same-age 7- and 9-year-old children (N = 237) had to decide which 1 of 2 hypothetical candidates should play the lead role in a school musical. When information was unshared, group members had to exchange their uniquely held information to identify the best candidate. Only a minority of groups picked the best candidate when information was unshared. Yet, groups of 7-year-old children were better at identifying the best candidate and were less likely to focus on the discussion of shared information than groups of 9-year-olds. These findings are interpreted with reference to processes underlying information sharing in groups, namely collective information sampling, preference-consistent evaluation, and collaborative inhibition/intersubjectivity.

Beliefs in conspiracy theories and the need for cognitive closure.

An important component of conspiracy theories is how they influence, and are influenced by, the evaluation of potential evidence. Some individuals may be more open minded regarding certain explanations for events whereas others may seek closure and thus cut off a conspiracy explanation. Two studies examined the relationship between the need for cognitive closure (NFCC), levels of belief in real world conspiracy theories, and the attribution of conspiracy theories to explain events. A first, small (N = 30) and preliminary study found no relationship between NFCC and beliefs in conspiracy theories, suggesting that both advocates and opponents of conspiracy explanations do not differ on this dimension. A second study (N = 86) revealed that evidence for and against conspiracy theories had an influence on attributions of the likelihood of a conspiracy to explain a novel event. Specifically, after reading evidence individuals with high levels of belief in conspiracy theories tended to rate a conspiracy explanation as more likely whereas those with low levels of belief rated it as less likely. However, when the need for cognitive closure (NFCC) was experimentally lowered the effects of prior beliefs in conspiracy theories diminished.

Design and validation of the Satisfaction With Immunisation Service Questionnaire (SWISQ).

Adverse experiences with child immunisation services can contribute to the deferral of immunisation appointments and to non-attendance. The aim of this study was to design and validate the Satisfaction With Immunisation Service Questionnaire (SWISQ) as a tool that can be used by general practices to evaluate their service and identify areas of dissatisfaction. The 19-item SWISQ was derived from past literature and qualitative interviews. Readability statistics, pilot testing and respondent feedback provided evidence of acceptability. The SWISQ was completed by 103 parents attending for their child's or children's vaccinations at four practices in southern England. The measure demonstrated excellent psychometric properties. Principal components analysis identified three subscales (Organisation/interface with practice (alpha 0.74); Consultation experience (0.94); Listening/respecting decisions (0.87)) and an Overall satisfaction scale (0.94). Overall satisfaction was unrelated to parents' age, gender or questionnaire response mode. However, satisfaction with waiting times differed between practices. The SWISQ is a reliable and valid tool that can be used easily within the context of general practice. Further validation is needed to examine re-test reliability, construct and criterion validity, as well as some minor modifications in item content and wording.

The Immunisation Beliefs and Intentions Measure (IBIM): predicting parents' intentions to immunise preschool children.

In England, uptake of the second dose of MMR (against measles, mumps, rubella), and dTaP/IPV or DTaP/IPV booster (against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio), is lower than that of the primary course. The Immunisation Beliefs and Intentions Measure (IBIM), based on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and qualitative interviews, was used to predict parents' intentions to take preschoolers for these recommended vaccinations. Parents from 43 child groups in southern England were randomised to receiving questions about either MMR (N=193) or dTaP/IPV (N=159). Overall, 255 parents fully completed TPB-based items. Regression analyses revealed that parental attitudes about the protective benefits of immunising and perceived behavioural control were strong, reliable predictors of intention to immunise with MMR. For dTaP/IPV, perceived protective benefits and number of children reliably predicted intention to immunise. Differences between parents with 'maximum immunisation intentions' and those with 'less than maximum intentions' are described. The IBIM appears to be a useful measure for predicting parents' intentions to immunise preschoolers. Implications for improving uptake are discussed.

'It's just the normal thing to do': exploring parental decision-making about the 'five-in-one' vaccine.

This qualitative study explored parental decision-making about the DTaP/IPV/Hib 'five-in-one' vaccine. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 parents of babies aged between 4 and 13 weeks old, recruited from four practices in southern England. A modified Grounded Theory approach identified that although parents had some concerns, most complied with the recommended programme rather than making an informed decision. Other themes related to perceived importance of immunisation; beliefs about how immunisation works; trust; perceptions of vulnerability; feelings of guilt and responsibility; and practicalities. It is important to explore how parents' attitudes change over the preschool years and to develop ways of addressing uncertainties about immunisation, including the safety of combining antigens and the need for boosters.