Telomere shortening produces an inflammatory environment that increases tumor incidence in zebrafish.

Cancer incidence increases exponentially with age when human telomeres are shorter. Similarly, telomerase reverse transcriptase (tert) mutant zebrafish have premature short telomeres and anticipate cancer incidence to younger ages. However, because short telomeres constitute a road block to cell proliferation, telomere shortening is currently viewed as a tumor suppressor mechanism and should protect from cancer. This conundrum is not fully understood. In our current study, we report that telomere shortening promotes cancer in a noncell autonomous manner. Using zebrafish chimeras, we show increased incidence of invasive melanoma when wild-type (WT) tumors are generated in tert mutant zebrafish. Tissues adjacent to melanoma lesions (skin) and distant organs (intestine) in tert mutants exhibited higher levels of senescence and inflammation. In addition, we transferred second generation (G2) tert blastula cells into WT to produce embryo chimeras. Cells with very short telomeres induced increased tumor necrosis factor1-α (TNF1-α) expression and senescence in larval tissues in a noncell autonomous manner, creating an inflammatory environment. Considering that inflammation is protumorigenic, we transplanted melanoma-derived cells into G2 tert zebrafish embryos and observed that tissue environment with short telomeres leads to increased tumor development. To test if inflammation was necessary for this effect, we treated melanoma transplants with nonsteroid anti-inflammatory drugs and show that higher melanoma dissemination can be averted. Thus, apart from the cell autonomous role of short telomeres in contributing to genome instability, we propose that telomere shortening with age causes systemic chronic inflammation leading to increased tumor incidence.

Immunochemical analysis of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation in HaCaT keratinocytes induced by the mono-alkylating agent 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES): Impact of experimental conditions.

Sulfur mustard (SM) is a bifunctional alkylating agent with a long history of use as a chemical weapon. Although its last military use is dated for the eighties of the last century, a potential use in terroristic attacks against civilians remains a significant threat. Thus, improving medical therapy of mustard exposed individuals is still of particular interest. PARP inhibitors were recently brought into the focus as a potential countermeasure for mustard-induced pathologies, supported by the availability of efficient compounds successfully tested in cancer therapy. PARP activation after SM treatment was reported in several cell types and tissues under various conditions; however, a detailed characterization of this phenomenon is still missing. This study provides the basis for such studies by developing and optimizing experimental conditions to investigate poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation (PARylation) in HaCaT keratinocytes upon treatment with the monofunctional alkylating agent 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide ("half mustard", CEES). By using an immunofluorescence-based approach, we show that optimization of experimental conditions with regards to the type of solvent, dilution factors and treatment procedure is essential to obtain a homogenous PAR staining in HaCaT cell cultures. Furthermore, we demonstrate that different CEES treatment protocols significantly influence the cytotoxicity profiles of treated cells. Using an optimized treatment protocol, our data reveals that CEES induces a dose- and time-dependent dynamic PARylation response in HaCaT cells that could be completely blocked by treating cells with the clinically relevant pharmacological PARP inhibitor ABT888 (also known as veliparib). Finally, siRNA experiments show that CEES-induced PAR formation is predominantly due to the activation of PARP1. In conclusion, this study provides a detailed analysis of the CEES-induced PARylation response in HaCaT keratinocytes, which forms an experimental basis to study the molecular mechanism of PARP1 activation and its functional consequences after mustard treatment in general. Such a study is presented in an accompanying article (Mangerich et al., 2016).

Sulfur and nitrogen mustards induce characteristic poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation responses in HaCaT keratinocytes with distinctive cellular consequences.

Mustard agents are potent DNA alkylating agents with mutagenic, cytotoxic and vesicant properties. They include bi-functional agents, such as sulfur mustard (SM) or nitrogen mustard (mustine, HN2), as well as mono-functional agents, such as "half mustard" (CEES). Whereas SM has been used as a chemical warfare agent, several nitrogen mustard derivatives, such as chlorambucil and cyclophosphamide, are being used as established chemotherapeutics. Upon induction of specific forms of genotoxic stimuli, several poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) synthesize the nucleic acid-like biopolymer poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) by using NAD(+) as a substrate. Previously, it was shown that SM triggers cellular poly(ADP-ribosyl) ation (PARylation), but so far this phenomenon is poorly characterized. In view of the protective effects of PARP inhibitors, the latter have been proposed as a treatment option of SM-exposed victims. In an accompanying article (Debiak et al., 2016), we have provided an optimized protocol for the analysis of the CEES-induced PARylation response in HaCaT keratinocytes, which forms an experimental basis to further analyze mustard-induced PARylation and its functional consequences, in general. Thus, in the present study, we performed a comprehensive characterization of the PARylation response in HaCaT cells after treatment with four different mustard agents, i.e., SM, CEES, HN2, and chlorambucil, on a qualitative, quantitative and functional level. In particular, we recorded substance-specific as well as dose- and time-dependent PARylation responses using independent bioanalytical methods based on single-cell immuno-fluorescence microscopy and quantitative isotope dilution mass spectrometry. Furthermore, we analyzed if and how PARylation contributes to mustard-induced toxicity by treating HaCaT cells with CEES, SM, and HN2 in combination with the clinically relevant PARP inhibitor ABT888. As evaluated by a novel immunofluorescence-based protocol for the detection of N7-ETE-guanine DNA adducts, the excision rate of CEES-induced DNA adducts was not affected by PARP inhibition. Furthermore, while CEES induced moderate changes in cellular NAD(+) levels, annexin V/PI flow cytometry analysis revealed that these changes did not affect CEES-induced short-term cytotoxicity 24h after treatment. In contrast, PARP inhibition impaired cell proliferation and clonogenic survival, and potentiated micronuclei formation of HaCaT cells upon CEES treatment. Similarly, PARP inhibition affected clonogenic survival of cells treated with bi-functional mustards such as SM and HN2. In conclusion, we demonstrate that PARylation plays a functional role in mustard-induced cellular stress response with substance-specific differences. Since PARP inhibitors exhibit therapeutic potential to treat SM-related pathologies and to sensitize cancer cells for mustard-based chemotherapy, potential long-term effects of PARP inhibition on genomic stability and carcinogenesis should be carefully considered when pursuing such a strategy.

The automated FADU-assay, a potential high-throughput in vitro method for early screening of DNA breakage.

Genotoxicity tests are essential to identify compounds that have a potential to compromise not only the environment but also human and animal health, including compounds that increase the risk of cancer. At present, no single test is capable of detecting all types of genotoxic effects; therefore a battery of in vitro and, if positive, in vivo tests is necessary to determine the genotoxicity of a substance. However, the respective specificities of current assays have been criticized for their high percentage of false positive results. We recently published an automated version of the "Fluorimetric detection of Alkaline DNA Unwinding" (FADU) assay for measuring DNA strand breaks in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells or in cell lines. Using this new technology we show detection of DNA strand breaks in cells treated with several compounds known to induce DNA strand breaks by various mechanisms. We also tested toxic compounds that were not expected to induce DNA strand breaks; these were negative in the assay as expected. Finally, we included zinc oxide nanoparticles of high production volume to explore further fields of potential FADU applications. The main advantages of this assay are high reproducibility, easy handling, lack of operator bias, high-throughput, speed, and low cost.