Linking dendroecology and association genetics in natural populations: Stress responses archived in tree rings associate with SNP genotypes in silver fir (Abies alba Mill.).

Genetic association studies in forest trees would greatly benefit from information on the response of trees to environmental stressors over time, which can be provided by dendroecological analysis. Here, we jointly analysed dendroecological and genetic data of surviving silver fir trees to explore the genetic basis of their response to the iconic stress episode of the 1970s and 1980s that led to large-scale forest dieback in Central Europe and has been attributed to air pollution. Specifically, we derived dendrophenotypic measures from 190 trees in the Bavarian Forest that characterize the resistance, resilience and recovery during this growth depression, and in the drought year in 1976. By focusing on relative growth changes of trees and by standardizing the dendrophenotypes within stands, we accounted for variation introduced by micro- and macroscale environmental differences. We associated the dendrophenotypes with single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in candidate genes using general linear models (GLMs) and the machine learning algorithm random forest with subsequent feature selection. Most trees at our study sites experienced a severe growth decline from 1974 until the mid-1980s with minimum values during the drought year. Fifteen genes were associated with the dendrophenotypes, including genes linked to photosynthesis and drought stress. With our study, we show that dendrophenotypes can be a powerful resource for genetic association studies that permit to account for micro- and macroenvironmental variation when data are derived from natural populations. We call for a wider collaboration of dendroecologists and forest geneticists to integrate individual tree-level dendrophenotypes in genetic association studies.

Operation modes of the molecular motor kinesin.

The velocity and the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis rate of the molecular motor kinesin are studied using a general network representation for the motor, which incorporates both the energetics of ATP hydrolysis and the experimentally observed separation of time scales between chemical and mechanical transitions. Both the motor velocity and its hydrolysis rate can be expressed as superpositions of excess fluxes for the directed cycles (or dicycles) of the network. The sign of these dicycle excess fluxes depends only on two thermodynamic control parameters as provided by the load force F and the chemical energy Deltamicro released during the hydrolysis of a single ATP molecule. In contrast, both the motor velocity and its hydrolysis rate depend, in general, on the load force F as well as on the three concentrations of ATP, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and inorganic phosphate (P), separately. Thus, in order to represent the different operation modes of the motor in the (F,Deltamicro) plane, one has to specify two concentrations such as the product concentrations [ADP] and [P]. As a result, we find four different operation modes corresponding to the four possible combinations of ATP hydrolysis or synthesis with forward or backward mechanical steps. Our operation diagram implies in particular that backward steps are coupled to ATP hydrolysis for sufficiently large ATP concentrations, but to ATP synthesis for sufficiently large ADP and/or P concentrations.