Prenatal and early postnatal phthalate exposure and child neurodevelopment at age of 7 years - Polish Mother and Child Cohort.

Phthalates are among the most frequently investigated environmental chemicals influencing children's health and particularly their neuropsychological development. However, the reported effects of these compounds on child behavior, cognitive and psychomotor outcomes are not fully consistent. The aim of this study is to evaluate the associations between prenatal and early postnatal phthalate exposures and child neurodevelopment at age of 7 years. A total of 134 mother-child pairs from Polish Mother and Child Cohort (REPRO_PL) constitute the basis for current analysis. Eleven phthalate metabolites were measured in urine samples collected from mothers in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy and from children at the age of 2 years. Child neuropsychological development at early school age (7 years) was assessed by both the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) filled by mothers and the Polish adaptation of the Intelligence and Development Scales (IDS) performed by psychologists. Mono-ethyl phthalate (MEP) concentration during pregnancy was significantly associated with increased risk of peer relationship problems in SDQ (OR = 2.7, p = 0.03). The results of the IDS analyses focused on child's cognitive and psychomotor development are not fully conclusive. Negative associations were evident between some phthalates in early childhood period and fluid intelligence and cognition (MEP: ß = -5.2; p = 0.006; ß = -4.2; p = 0.006; mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP): ß = -4.9; p = 0.03; ß = -4.0; p = 0.03; respectively), while positive associations have been found in the prenatal period (mono-2-ethyl-5-oxo-hexyl phthalate (oxo-MEHP): ß = 3.6; p = 0.03 for fluid intelligence; ß = 2.9; p = 0.03 for cognition). Further studies are required in order to elucidate which are the most critical periods of phthalate exposure on children's neurodevelopmental outcomes.

Urinary cotinine levels and environmental tobacco smoke in mothers and children of Romania, Portugal and Poland within the European human biomonitoring pilot study.

The aim of this study was to explore data from the DEMOCOPHES study population for Romania, Portugal and Poland, in order to assess smoking patterns and the extent of ETS exposure and compare the national study samples with reference to the respective anti-smoking laws. The subset of the DEMOCOPHES study sample consisted of 360 children and their mothers (120 in each of the three countries - Romania (RO), Portugal (PT) and Poland (PL). Smoking was assessed using a detailed questionnaire for the participants, which addresses both active and passive smoking. This assessment uses exposure-relevant questionnaire data, in particular on the home environment and residence, socio-demographic characteristics, lifestyle such as nutrition, smoking behavior, other exposure-relevant behavior and occupational history, as well as urinary cotinine and creatinine measurements. We performed general statistical analysis and innovative receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses. Smoking prevalence as evaluated by the questionnaire was generally high, and higher than official statistics, which suggests some under-reporting in the countries, particularly in Romania. Urinary cotinine levels provided biochemical confirmation of the high and similar smoking prevalence for the three countries. Concerning ETS exposure, Romania presented significantly higher levels, for children as well as for non-smoking mothers, with Portugal showing significantly lower levels. Compared to non-smoking mothers, the children showed relatively higher ETS exposure levels in all three countries. The established country-specific optimal cut-off values in urinary cotinine to distinguish smokers from non-smokers vary more than those to discriminate ETS exposure extent in non-smoking mothers and children. Although different between countries, these values are a valuable output to monitor effectiveness of both national antismoking laws and educational programs in the three countries. The findings of this study point to the urgent need for stronger, more effective and well enforced smoke-free legislation in the three countries.

Exposure determinants of cadmium in European mothers and their children.

The metal cadmium (Cd) is a widespread environmental pollutant with documented adverse effects on the kidneys and bones from long-term environmental exposure, but with insufficiently elucidated public health consequences such as risk of cardiovascular disease, hormone-related cancer in adults and developmental effects in children. This study is the first pan-European human biomonitoring project that succeeded in performing harmonized measurements of Cd in urine in a comparable way in mother-child couples from 16 European countries. The aim of the study was to evaluate the overall Cd exposure and significant determinants of Cd exposure. A study population of 1632 women (24-52 years of age), and 1689 children (5-12 years of age), from 32 rural and urban areas, was examined within a core period of 6 months in 2011-2012. Women were stratified as smokers and non-smokers. As expected, smoking mothers had higher geometric mean (gm) urinary cadmium (UCd; 0.24 µg/g crea; n=360) than non-smoking mothers (gm 0.18 µg/g crea; n=1272; p<0.0001), and children had lower UCd (gm 0.065 µg/g crea; n=1689) than their mothers at the country level. Non-smoking women exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at home had 14% (95% CI 1-28%) higher UCd than those who were not exposed to ETS at home (p=0.04). No influence of ETS at home or other places on UCd levels was detected in children. Smoking women with primary education as the highest educational level of the household had 48% (95% CI 18-86%) higher UCd than those with tertiary education (p=0.0008). The same observation was seen in non-smoking women and in children; however they were not statistically significant. In children, living in a rural area was associated with 7% (95% CI 1-13%) higher UCd (p=0.03) compared to living in an urban area. Children, 9-12 years had 7% (95% CI 1-13%) higher UCd (p=0.04) than children 5-8 years. About 1% of the mothers, and 0.06% of the children, exceeded the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) appointed by EFSA, corresponding to 1.0 µg Cd/g crea in urine. Poland had the highest UCd in comparison between the 16 countries, while Denmark had the lowest. Whether the differences between countries are related to differences in the degree of environmental Cd contamination or to differences in lifestyle, socioeconomic status or dietary patterns is not clear.

Lessons learnt on recruitment and fieldwork from a pilot European human biomonitoring survey.

Within the European Environment and Health Action Plan an initiative to establish a coherent human biomonitoring approach in Europe was started. The project COPHES (COnsortium to Perform Human biomonitoring on a European Scale ) developed recommendations for a harmonized conduct of a human biomonitoring (HBM) survey which came into action as the pilot study DEMOCOPHES (DEMOnstration of a study to COordinate and Perform Human biomonitoring on a European Scale). Seventeen European countries conducted a survey with harmonized instruments for, inter alia, recruitment, fieldwork and sampling, in autumn/winter 2011/2012. Based on the countries' experiences of conducting the pilot study, following lessons learnt were compiled: the harmonized fieldwork instruments (basic questionnaire, urine and hair sampling) turned out to be very valuable for future HBM surveys on the European scale. A school approach was favoured by most of the countries to recruit school-aged children according to the established guidelines and country specific experiences. To avoid a low participation rate, intensive communication with the involved institutions and possible participants proved to be necessary. The communication material should also include information on exclusion criteria and offered incentives. Telephone contact to the participants the day before fieldwork during the survey can prevent the forgetting of appointments and first morning urine samples. To achieve comparable results on the European scale, training of interviewers in all issues of recruitment, fieldwork and sampling through information material and training sessions is crucial. A survey involving many European countries needs time for preparation and conduct. Materials for quality control prepared for all steps of recruitment, fieldwork and sampling proved to be important to warrant reliable results.

Policy recommendations and cost implications for a more sustainable framework for European human biomonitoring surveys.

The potential of Human Biomonitoring (HBM) in exposure characterisation and risk assessment is well established in the scientific HBM community and regulatory arena by many publications. The European Environment and Health Strategy as well as the Environment and Health Action Plan 2004-2010 of the European Commission recognised the value of HBM and the relevance and importance of coordination of HBM programmes in Europe. Based on existing and planned HBM projects and programmes of work and capabilities in Europe the Seventh Framework Programme (FP 7) funded COPHES (COnsortium to Perform Human Biomonitoring on a European Scale) to advance and improve comparability of HBM data across Europe. The pilot study protocol was tested in 17 European countries in the DEMOCOPHES feasibility study (DEMOnstration of a study to COordinate and Perform Human biomonitoring on a European Scale) cofunded (50%) under the LIFE+ programme of the European Commission. The potential of HBM in supporting and evaluating policy making (including e.g. REACH) and in awareness raising on environmental health, should significantly advance the process towards a fully operational, continuous, sustainable and scientifically based EU HBM programme. From a number of stakeholder activities during the past 10 years and the national engagement, a framework for sustainable HBM structure in Europe is recommended involving national institutions within environment, health and food as well as European institutions such as ECHA, EEA, and EFSA. An economic frame with shared cost implications for national and European institutions is suggested benefitting from the capacity building set up by COPHES/DEMOCOPHES.

Communication in a Human biomonitoring study: Focus group work, public engagement and lessons learnt in 17 European countries.

A communication strategy was developed by The Consortium to Perform Human Biomonitoring on a European Scale (COPHES), as part of its objectives to develop a framework and protocols to enable the collection of comparable human biomonitoring data throughout Europe. The framework and protocols were tested in the pilot study DEMOCOPHES (Demonstration of a study to Coordinate and Perform Human biomonitoring on a European Scale). The aims of the communication strategy were to raise awareness of human biomonitoring, encourage participation in the study and to communicate the study results and their public health significance. It identified the audiences and key messages, documented the procedure for dissemination of results and was updated as the project progressed. A communication plan listed the tools and materials such as press releases, flyers, recruitment letters and information leaflets required for each audience with a time frame for releasing them. Public insight research was used to evaluate the recruitment material, and the feedback was used to improve the documents. Dissemination of results was coordinated in a step by step approach by the participating countries within DEMOCOPHES, taking into account specific national messages according to the needs of each country. Participants received individual results, unless they refused to be informed, along with guidance on what the results meant. The aggregate results and policy recommendations were then communicated to the general public and stakeholders, followed by dissemination at European level. Several lessons were learnt that may assist other future human biomonitoring studies. Recruitment took longer than anticipated and so social scientists, to help with community engagement, should be part of the research team from the start. As a European study, involving multiple countries, additional considerations were needed for the numerous organisations, different languages, cultures, policies and priorities. Therefore, communication documents should be seen as templates with essential information clearly indicated and the option for each country to tailor the material to reflect these differences. Future studies should consider setting up multidisciplinary networks of medical professionals and communication experts, and holding training workshops to discuss the interpretation of results and risk communication. Publicity and wide dissemination of the results helped to raise awareness of human biomonitoring to the general public, policy makers and other key stakeholders. Effective and timely communication, at all stages of a study, is essential if the potential of human biomonitoring research to improve public health is to be realised.

Fish consumption patterns and hair mercury levels in children and their mothers in 17 EU countries.

The toxicity of methylmercury (MeHg) in humans is well established and the main source of exposure is via the consumption of large marine fish and mammals. Of particular concern are the potential neurodevelopmental effects of early life exposure to low-levels of MeHg. Therefore, it is important that pregnant women, children and women of childbearing age are, as far as possible, protected from MeHg exposure. Within the European project DEMOCOPHES, we have analyzed mercury (Hg) in hair in 1799 mother-child pairs from 17 European countries using a strictly harmonized protocol for mercury analysis. Parallel, harmonized questionnaires on dietary habits provided information on consumption patterns of fish and marine products. After hierarchical cluster analysis of consumption habits of the mother-child pairs, the DEMOCOPHES cohort can be classified into two branches of approximately similar size: one with high fish consumption (H) and another with low consumption (L). All countries have representatives in both branches, but Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Portugal and Sweden have twice as many or more mother-child pairs in H than in L. For Switzerland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia the situation is the opposite, with more representatives in L than H. There is a strong correlation (r=0.72) in hair mercury concentration between the mother and child in the same family, which indicates that they have a similar exposure situation. The clustering of mother-child pairs on basis of their fish consumption revealed some interesting patterns. One is that for the same sea fish consumption, other food items of marine origin, like seafood products or shellfish, contribute significantly to the mercury levels in hair. We conclude that additional studies are needed to assess and quantify exposure to mercury from seafood products, in particular. The cluster analysis also showed that 95% of mothers who consume once per week fish only, and no other marine products, have mercury levels 0.55 µg/g. Thus, the 95th percentile of the distribution in this group is only around half the US-EPA recommended threshold of 1 µg/g mercury in hair. Consumption of freshwater fish played a minor role in contributing to mercury exposure in the studied cohort. The DEMOCOPHES data shows that there are significant differences in MeHg exposure across the EU and that exposure is highly correlated with consumption of fish and marine products. Fish and marine products are key components of a healthy human diet and are important both traditionally and culturally in many parts of Europe. Therefore, the communication of the potential risks of mercury exposure needs to be carefully balanced to take into account traditional and cultural values as well as the potential health benefits from fish consumption. European harmonized human biomonitoring programs provide an additional dimension to national HMB programs and can assist national authorities to tailor mitigation and adaptation strategies (dietary advice, risk communication, etc.) to their country's specific requirements.

The effect of prenatal exposure to phthalates on food allergy and early eczema in inner-city children.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: We hypothesized that maternal prenatal and children urine metabolite concentration of phthalates would be associated with food allergy and early eczema among inner-city children. The study was based on data from the Polish Mother and Child Cohort. METHODS: Prenatal and postnatal exposure to the following phthalates: diethyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate, di-n-butyl phthalate, butyl-benzyl phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, diisononyl phthalate, and di-n-octyl phthalate were determined by measuring phthalate metabolites in the urine collected from the mothers during the third trimester of pregnancy and from their children at age 2 years. Pre- and postnatal observations limited the response rate and final sample size; data from 147 participants were included in the analysis. Children's health status was assessed at 24 months of age by using a questionnaire administered to the mothers. We studied associations between the urine level of phthalates and the presence of food allergy and atopic dermatitis in logistic regression analysis. All associations were adjusted for independent risk factors of dependent variables. Associations with atopic dermatitis were adjusted for the effect of atopy in the family, the father's education, frequency of house cleaning, and breastfeeding; associations with food allergy were adjusted for the presence of pets at home during pregnancy and breastfeeding. RESULTS: The prevalence of the outcomes were as follows: atopic dermatitis, 12.2%, and food allergy, 48.9%. We showed that higher urine concentrations of monobenzyl phthalate in mothers during pregnancy increased the risk of food allergy in children during the first 2 years of life (odds ratio 4.17 [95% confidence interval, 1.17-17.89]). There were no associations with children's urine and allergic symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Results of our study indicated awareness of environmental factors that may affect children's health because the phthalates were shown to be risk factors for food allergy in children.

Economic benefits of methylmercury exposure control in Europe: monetary value of neurotoxicity prevention.

BACKGROUND: Due to global mercury pollution and the adverse health effects of prenatal exposure to methylmercury (MeHg), an assessment of the economic benefits of prevented developmental neurotoxicity is necessary for any cost-benefit analysis. METHODS: Distributions of hair-Hg concentrations among women of reproductive age were obtained from the DEMOCOPHES project (1,875 subjects in 17 countries) and literature data (6,820 subjects from 8 countries). The exposures were assumed to comply with log-normal distributions. Neurotoxicity effects were estimated from a linear dose-response function with a slope of 0.465 Intelligence Quotient (IQ) point reduction per µg/g increase in the maternal hair-Hg concentration during pregnancy, assuming no deficits below a hair-Hg limit of 0.58 µg/g thought to be safe. A logarithmic IQ response was used in sensitivity analyses. The estimated IQ benefit cost was based on lifetime income, adjusted for purchasing power parity. RESULTS: The hair-mercury concentrations were the highest in Southern Europe and lowest in Eastern Europe. The results suggest that, within the EU, more than 1.8 million children are born every year with MeHg exposures above the limit of 0.58 µg/g, and about 200,000 births exceed a higher limit of 2.5 µg/g proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO). The total annual benefits of exposure prevention within the EU were estimated at more than 600,000 IQ points per year, corresponding to a total economic benefit between €8,000 million and €9,000 million per year. About four-fold higher values were obtained when using the logarithmic response function, while adjustment for productivity resulted in slightly lower total benefits. These calculations do not include the less tangible advantages of protecting brain development against neurotoxicity or any other adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS: These estimates document that efforts to combat mercury pollution and to reduce MeHg exposures will have very substantial economic benefits in Europe, mainly in southern countries. Some data may not be entirely representative, some countries were not covered, and anticipated changes in mercury pollution all suggest a need for extended biomonitoring of human MeHg exposure.

From science to policy: How European HBM indicators help to answer policy questions related to phthalates and DINCH exposure.

Within the European Human Biomonitoring (HBM) Initiative HBM4EU we derived HBM indicators that were designed to help answering key policy questions and support chemical policies. The result indicators convey information on chemicals exposure of different age groups, sexes, geographical regions and time points by comparing median exposure values. If differences are observed for one group or the other, policy measures or risk management options can be implemented. Impact indicators support health risk assessment by comparing exposure values with health-based guidance values, such as human biomonitoring guidance values (HBM-GVs). In general, the indicators should be designed to translate complex scientific information into short and clear messages and make it accessible to policy makers but also to a broader audience such as stakeholders (e.g. NGO's), other scientists and the general public. Based on harmonized data from the HBM4EU Aligned Studies (2014-2021), the usefulness of our indicators was demonstrated for the age group children (6-11 years), using two case examples: one phthalate (Diisobutyl phthalate: DiBP) and one non-phthalate substitute (Di-isononyl cyclohexane-1,2- dicarboxylate: DINCH). For the comparison of age groups, these were compared to data for teenagers (12-18 years), and time periods were compared using data from the DEMOCOPHES project (2011-2012). Our result indicators proved to be suitable for demonstrating the effectiveness of policy measures for DiBP and the need of continuous monitoring for DINCH. They showed similar exposure for boys and girls, indicating that there is no need for gender focused interventions and/or no indication of sex-specific exposure patterns. They created a basis for a targeted approach by highlighting relevant geographical differences in internal exposure. An adequate data basis is essential for revealing differences for all indicators. This was particularly evident in our studies on the indicators on age differences. The impact indicator revealed that health risks based on exposure to DiBP cannot be excluded. This is an indication or flag for risk managers and policy makers that exposure to DiBP still is a relevant health issue. HBM indicators derived within HBM4EU are a valuable and important complement to existing indicator lists in the context of environment and health. Their applicability, current shortcomings and solution strategies are outlined.

Exposure to Phthalates in European Children, Adolescents and Adults since 2005: A Harmonized Approach Based on Existing HBM Data in the HBM4EU Initiative.

Phthalates are mainly used as plasticizers and are associated inter alia with adverse effects on reproductive functions. While more and more national programs in Europe have started monitoring internal exposure to phthalates and its substitute 1,2-Cyclohexanedicarboxylic acid (DINCH), the comparability of results from such existing human biomonitoring (HBM) studies across Europe is challenging. They differ widely in time periods, study samples, degree of geographical coverage, design, analytical methodology, biomarker selection, and analytical quality assurance level. The HBM4EU initiative has gathered existing HBM data of 29 studies from participating countries, covering all European regions and Israel. The data were prepared and aggregated by a harmonized procedure with the aim to describe-as comparably as possible-the EU-wide general population's internal exposure to phthalates from the years 2005 to 2019. Most data were available from Northern (up to 6 studies and up to 13 time points), Western (11; 19), and Eastern Europe (9; 12), e.g., allowing for the investigation of time patterns. While the bandwidth of exposure was generally similar, we still observed regional differences for Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP), Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), Di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP), and Di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP) with pronounced decreases over time in Northern and Western Europe, and to a lesser degree in Eastern Europe. Differences between age groups were visible for Di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), where children (3 to 5-year olds and 6 to 11-year olds) had lower urinary concentrations than adolescents (12 to 19-year-olds), who in turn had lower urinary concentrations than adults (20 to 39-year-olds). This study is a step towards making internal exposures to phthalates comparable across countries, although standardized data were not available, targeting European data sets harmonized with respect to data formatting and calculation of aggregated data (such as developed within HBM4EU), and highlights further suggestions for improved harmonization in future studies.

[Polybrominated diphenyl ethers: sources of exposure and expected health effects]. / Polibromowane etery difenylowe--zródla narazenia i potencjalne skutki zdrowotne.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) along with hexabromocyclododecan, tetrabromobisphenol A and polybrominated biphenyls have been widely used for several decades as flame retardants. They have been added to consumer products, such as car and furniture upholstery, TV sets and computers. PBDE are not chemically bound to the polymers therefore, they can leach into the environment. They have been found in household dust, food, human breast milk, human adipose tissue and human serum. In this paper the potential major sources of emission of PBDEs, human biomonitoring data and results of experimental studies are reviewed. The available data shows that this group of compounds requires a particular concern because of their possibly adverse effects on human health and the environment.

[Biomarkers of occupational and environmental exposure to benzene and styrene determinated by LC-MS/MS]. / Oznaczanie biomarkerów narazenia zawodowego i srodowiskowego na benzen i styren z zastosowaniem techniki LC-MS/MS.

BACKGROUND: Based on the studies performed a sensitive and simple method for the determination of benzene and styrene metabolites in urine has been developed. The developed procedure can be used for biological monitoring of occupational and environmental exposure. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Urine samples for the determination of styrene metabolites (phenylglyoxylic acid--PGA and mandelic acid--MA) were only acidified with formic acid, while those for the determination of benzene metabolite (S-phenyl-mercapturic acid--S-PMA) were additionally extracted with ethyl acetate. The measurement was performed by high performance liquid chromatography--tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The quality of our analysis was verified using internal and external quality control. RESULTS: Limit of detection for S-PMA was 0.33 microg/l, for MA--60 microg/l and for PGA--40 microg/l; precision was 2-3% and recovery 94-98%. CONCLUSIONS: The method for the quantification of benzene and styrene metabolites can be used for biological monitoring of occupational and environmental exposure.

[Occupational exposure to pesticides among farmers of the Lódz' voivodeship agricultural area]. / Zawodowa ekspozycja na wybrane pestycydy rolników z terenów rolniczych województwa Lódzkiego.

BACKGROUND: Pesticides are widely used in agriculture for the crop protection. Despite advanced mechanization of the agricultural production, the population's exposure to these chemicals is still significant. The objective of the study was to evaluate farmers' occupational exposure to two most frequently used pesticides: MCPA and 2,4-D. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Pesticide exposure was assessed in 24 farmers, living in the Lódz voivodeship agriculture area, for 71 sprayings performed on their arable areas. The exposure assessment methods were used to estimate workers' exposure to selected pesticides (MCPA and 2,4-D). The analysis covered the biological material (urine) collected on the day of pesticides spraying: in the morning before spraying (Sample A), in the evening after spraying (Sample B) and on the next day (Sample C). RESULTS: The level of pesticides found in farmers' urine was growing from sample A to sample C. The highest level of pesticides was found in sample C and the lowest in sample A. The predictors of the pesticide level were: sample collection time (urine concentration of pesticides in sample C compared with sample B) (p = 0.002), concentration of pesticides in sample A (p = 0.012) and the amount of products used during spraying (p = 0.021). 'The use of protective equipment was at the border of statistical significance (p = 0.059). The differences in exposure between farmers can be only partly explained by the analyzed exposure predictors. CONCLUSIONS: The study not only confirmed the presence of occupational exposure but also showed the level of exposure among farmers under study. This is very important because in Poland the level of exposure among farmers is unknown and studies using the biological monitoring are very rare.

Environmental exposure to persistent organic pollutants measured in breast milk of lactating women from an urban area in central Poland.

Mothers' milk is considered a channel by means of which new-borns are exposed to polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs), environmental pollutants entering food chain and accumulating in fat-rich tissues. In this study, the concentrations of selected PCDDs, PCDFs, and dl-PCBs (a total of 29 substances) in milk samples of 110 breast-feeding women from an urban area were analyzed using the high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry method. Environmental exposure to these substances was expressed by means of the World Health Organization Toxicity Equivalent (WHO-TEQ2005) using the Toxicity Equivalent Factor values from van der Berg et al. (Toxicol. Sci. 93: 223-241, 2006). Concentrations and WHO-TEQ2005 values were then searched for plausible relationships with selected demographic and diet-related factors. The total WHO-TEQ2005 toxicity equivalent for all 29 substances was (mean ± SD) 10.57 ± 4.57 pg/g fat, while the WHO-TEQ2005 levels of PCDDs/PCDFs and dl-PCBs were 7.90 ± 4.17 pg/g fat and 2.67 ± 1.36 pg/g fat, respectively. The concentration and WHO-TEQ2005 toxicity equivalent of dl-PCBs correlated significantly with the mothers' age (rP = 0.3814, p < 0.00005; rP = 0.2817, p < 0.005, respectively). The total WHO-TEQ2005 toxicity equivalent for all analyzed substances was found to be positively associated with the frequency of consumption of fish and dairy products (p < 0.05 for both associations). These outcomes must, however, be interpreted cautiously due to limited size of the study. The results of this paper may provide a basis for further studies on the exposure to PCDDs, PCDFs, and dl-PCBs, and mechanisms underlying their action.

[Impact of prenatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure on birth parameters]. / Wplyw prenatalnej ekspozycji na dym tytoniowy na parametry urodzeniowe noworodka.

The aim of the study was to analyze the association between prenatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure (ETS) and child anthropometric parameters at birth such birth weight, length, head and chest circumference. The study population consisted of 107 pregnant women from Lodz district as the part of Polish Mother and Child Cohort study. The child prenatal ETS exposure was assessed based on questionnaire with mothers and cotinine level in saliva collected three times in pregnancy. The level of cotinine in biological samples was analyzed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS ESI+). About 35% of the children were prenatally exposed to ETS. The birth weight of the children prenatally exposed to ETS was 335 g lower than the birth weight of non-exposed newborns p < 0.001 after adjustment for: maternal educational level, marital status, prepregnancy weight, child gender, and gestational age. The same refers to child length and chest circumference (coef. -1.1 cm; p = 0.03 and coef. -1.3 cm; p = 0.002 respectively). Taking into account the negative effect of prenatal exposure to ETS, more efforts need to be taken to eliminate child ETS exposure.

Assessment of the dermal exposure to azoxystrobin among women tending cucumbers in selected Polish greenhouses after restricted entry intervals expired--the role of the protective gloves.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of our study was to determine the level of skin contamination by azoxystrobin in a group of women tending cucumbers in a vegetable-growing greenhouse after restricted entry intervals expired. METHODS: Exposure samples were assessed on two days during the spring: first entry on the day after spraying of azoxystrobin and second entry six days later. Dermal exposure was measured by using patches on the outside of clothing and sampling gloves underneath regular working gloves. Pesticide deposited on clothing patches and gloves as a substitute for skin deposition was determined by liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). RESULTS: The study has shown that workers in a Polish greenhouse are exposed to pesticides at re-entry into the greenhouse after pesticides were sprayed several days earlier. Azoxystrobin has been detected on hands, shoulders and chest. Higher levels of azoxystrobin were found on the cotton gloves of women tending the vegetables than on the patches. The levels decreased (by about 60%) on the patches and increased (by about 250%) on the cotton gloves between the two days of measurement. CONCLUSIONS: Women working in a vegetable-growing greenhouse and not directly engaged in the process of spraying experience a measurable dermal exposure to azoxystrobin. The protective gloves constitute a source of secondary exposure rather than protecting employees' hands from contact with the pesticide. More efficient personal protective gloves for proper protection of women working in vegetable greenhouses are needed.

Polish mother and child cohort study--defining the problem, the aim of the study and methodological assumption.

OBJECTIVES: Exposures during prenatal period have implications for pregnancy outcome as well as for children's health, morbidity and mortality. Prospective cohort study design allows for the identification of exposures that may influence pregnancy outcome and children's health, verification of such exposures by biomarker measurements and notification of any changes in exposure level. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Polish Mother and Child Cohort Study (REPRO_PL) is multicenter prospective cohort study conducted in 8 different regions of Poland. The final cohort is intended to comprise 1300 mother-child pairs to be recruited within 4-year period (2007-2011). The recruitment and all scheduled visits are conducted in maternity units or clinics in the districts included in the study. The women are followed-up 3 times in pregnancy (once in each trimester) and after delivery for the notification of pregnancy outcome. During each visit, detailed questionnaire and biological samples are collected including saliva, urine, hair, maternal blood and cord blood. About 6 weeks postpartum, breast milk from part of the women is collected. The study concentrates on the identification and evaluation of the effects of prenatal environmental exposure on pregnancy outcome and children's health. Specific research hypotheses refer to the role of heavy metals, exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in the aetiology of small-for-gestational-age (SGA) and preterm delivery (PD). The role of oxidative stress putative mechanism and pregnant women nutritional status will be investigated. Based on questionnaire data, the impact of occupational exposures and stressful situations will be evaluated. RESULTS: The results of the study will become available within the next few years and will help to determine levels of child prenatal exposure in several areas of Poland and its impact on course and outcome of pregnancy.

[Exposure of smoking pregnant women to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]. / Narazenie palacych kobiet ciezarnych na wielopierscieniowe weglowodory aromatyczne.

BACKGROUND: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are compounds that are formed as a result of incomplete combustion of organic matter. The most common sources of PAHs are cigarette smoke, coal-fired utilities, steel plants, coke-oven plants, graphite electrode manufacturing plant, Söderberg aluminum electrolysis plant, vehicle exhaust, wood-burning ovens and fireplaces, and charcoal-grilled and smoked food. The aim of the study was to assess the exposure of smoking pregnant women to PAHs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study population consisted of 189 pregnant women from the Lódz voivodeship (province). Smoking status was assessed based on saliva cotinine level analyzed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The cutoff point 10 ng/ml was adopted for saliva cotinine level. 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) concentration in urine sample was chosen as the biomarker of exposure to PAHs. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The mean concentration of 1-HP in urine of nonsmoking woman was 0.60 microg/g creatinine, whereas in smoking one 1.35 microg/g creatinine. Among the women with saliva cotinine level higher than 10 ng/ml, the mean concentration of 1-HP in urine was over twofold higher than that in women with cotinine level lower than 10 ng/ml after adjustment for the day of urine ample collection (ratio of geometric mean 2.3; 95% CI 1.7-3.0). The study confirmed a higher risk of exposure to PAHs in the group of women who smoke cigarettes during pregnancy as compared to nonsmoking women. It should be stressed that cigarette smoking is not the only source of exposure to PAHs.

[Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and psychomotor development of children]. / Narazenie na srodowiskowy dym tytoniowy a rozwój psychoruchowy dzieci.

BACKGROUND: In Poland, prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke is observed in about 30 percent of children and postnatal in over 50 percent of children. This exposure has serious health consequences, including the negative effect on child neurodevelopment. The aim of the study was to assess the effect of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure on child psychomotor development. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study population consisted of 63 children with well assessed prenatal ETS exposure (a threefold analysis of cotinine level in saliva of pregnant women). To assess ETS exposure in infants within one year after birth a questionnaire-based interview was conducted with mothers. The Bayley Scale for Infant and Toddler Development (BESID-III) was used for the evaluation of child neurodevelopment. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis (including gender, birth order of the child and parental educational status) indicated the statistically significant association between prenatal exposure to ETS and cognitive child development (b = -4.0; p = 0.04). ETS exposure has also a negative impact on motor (b = -2.7; p = 0.2) and language (b = -3.4; p = 0.08) abilities of the child although the results were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal smoking was found to be related to a decrease in child neurodevelopment, however, it was impossible to separate the prenatal from postnatal exposure. A lot of effort should be made to eliminate ETS exposure of children.