Inflammatory biomarkers and risk of breast cancer among young women in Latin America: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer incidence is increasing rapidly in Latin America, with a higher proportion of cases among young women than in developed countries. Studies have linked inflammation to breast cancer development, but data is limited in premenopausal women, especially in Latin America. METHODS: We investigated the associations between serum biomarkers of chronic inflammation (interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), leptin, adiponectin) and risk of premenopausal breast cancer among 453 cases and 453 matched, population-based controls from Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, and Mexico. Odds ratios (OR) were estimated using conditional logistic regression models. Analyses were stratified by size and hormonal receptor status of the tumors. RESULTS: IL-6 (ORper standard deviation (SD) = 1.33 (1.11-1.60)) and TNF-α (ORper SD = 1.32 (1.11-1.58)) were positively associated with breast cancer risk in fully adjusted models. Evidence of heterogeneity by estrogen receptor (ER) status was observed for IL-8 (P-homogeneity = 0.05), with a positive association in ER-negative tumors only. IL-8 (P-homogeneity = 0.06) and TNF-α (P-homogeneity = 0.003) were positively associated with risk in the largest tumors, while for leptin (P-homogeneity = 0.003) a positive association was observed for the smallest tumors only. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study support the implication of chronic inflammation in breast cancer risk in young women in Latin America. Largest studies of prospective design are needed to confirm these findings in premenopausal women.

An international study to increase concordance in Ki67 scoring.

Although an important biomarker in breast cancer, Ki67 lacks scoring standardization, which has limited its clinical use. Our previous study found variability when laboratories used their own scoring methods on centrally stained tissue microarray slides. In this current study, 16 laboratories from eight countries calibrated to a specific Ki67 scoring method and then scored 50 centrally MIB-1 stained tissue microarray cases. Simple instructions prescribed scoring pattern and staining thresholds for determination of the percentage of stained tumor cells. To calibrate, laboratories scored 18 'training' and 'test' web-based images. Software tracked object selection and scoring. Success for the calibration was prespecified as Root Mean Square Error of scores compared with reference <0.6 and Maximum Absolute Deviation from reference <1.0 (log2-transformed data). Prespecified success criteria for tissue microarray scoring required intraclass correlation significantly >0.70 but aiming for observed intraclass correlation ≥0.90. Laboratory performance showed non-significant but promising trends of improvement through the calibration exercise (mean Root Mean Square Error decreased from 0.6 to 0.4, Maximum Absolute Deviation from 1.6 to 0.9; paired t-test: P=0.07 for Root Mean Square Error, 0.06 for Maximum Absolute Deviation). For tissue microarray scoring, the intraclass correlation estimate was 0.94 (95% credible interval: 0.90-0.97), markedly and significantly >0.70, the prespecified minimum target for success. Some discrepancies persisted, including around clinically relevant cutoffs. After calibrating to a common scoring method via a web-based tool, laboratories can achieve high inter-laboratory reproducibility in Ki67 scoring on centrally stained tissue microarray slides. Although these data are potentially encouraging, suggesting that it may be possible to standardize scoring of Ki67 among pathology laboratories, clinically important discrepancies persist. Before this biomarker could be recommended for clinical use, future research will need to extend this approach to biopsies and whole sections, account for staining variability, and link to outcomes.

Relationship between menopausal hormone therapy and risk of ductal, lobular, and ductal-lobular breast carcinomas.

Combined estrogen and progestin hormone therapy (CHT) increases breast cancer risk, but this risk varies by breast cancer type. Several studies indicate that CHT is more strongly related to lobular carcinoma risk than to ductal carcinoma risk, but these studies have been limited in their assessments of recency and duration of use, and none included a centralized pathology review. We conducted a population-based case-control study consisting of 324 lobular, 196 ductal-lobular, and 524 ductal cases diagnosed from 2000 to 2004 and 469 controls ages 55 to 74 years old. Tissue specimens were centrally reviewed for 83% of cases. Associations between hormone use and breast cancer risk were evaluated using polytomous logistic regression. Current CHT users had 2.7-fold [95% confidence interval (95% CI), 1.7-4.2] and 3.3-fold (95% CI, 2.0-5.7) elevated risks of lobular and ductal-lobular carcinomas, respectively, regardless of tumor stage, size, or nodal status. Elevations in risk were observed only among users of CHT for > or =3 years. Among ductal-lobular cases, CHT increased risk of tumors that were > or =50% lobular (odds ratio, 4.8; 95% CI, 2.1-11.1) but not tumors that were <50% lobular (odds ratio, 1.9; 95% CI, 0.9-4.1). Current CHT users for > or =3 years have a substantially increased risk of lobular carcinomas. Although lobular carcinomas are less common than ductal carcinomas ( approximately 16% versus 70% of all invasive breast cancers in the United States), this duration is shorter than the 5 years of use widely cited to be needed to confer an increased risk of breast cancer overall. Further studies focusing on the etiology of lobular carcinomas are needed.

Polymorphisms in steroid hormone biosynthesis genes and risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions in Chinese women.

Common variants in genes encoding for key enzymes involved in steroidogenesis may alter sex steroid hormone levels, thereby influencing susceptibility to breast carcinoma and related conditions. In a case-control study of Chinese women, we examined genotypes of the CYP11A1 pentanucleotide [(TAAAA)n] repeat (D15S520), CYP17A1 rs743572, and HSD17B1 rs605059 polymorphisms in relation to the risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions, comparing 615 women with breast cancer and 467 women with fibrocystic breast conditions separately with 879 women without clinical breast disease. We also evaluated whether these relationships differed by the presence of proliferation in the extratumoral epithelium or fibrocystic lesions, menopausal status, or body mass index. Only CYP11A1 genotype was related to breast cancer risk, with women homozygous for the 4-repeat allele, relative to those homozygous for the 6-repeat allele, at reduced risk (age-adjusted odds ratio, 0.58; 95% confidence interval, 0.37-0.91). There was some suggestion of a stronger inverse association for breast cancer with evidence of proliferation in the extratumoral epithelium than for breast cancer without extratumoral proliferation. Breast cancer risk associated with CYP11A1 genotype did not differ by menopausal status or body mass index level. No associations between CYP11A1, CYP17A1, and HSD17B1 genotypes and risk of fibrocystic breast conditions were observed. Our findings support the possibility that common allelic variation at the CYP11A1 D15S520 locus alters breast cancer risk in Chinese women.

Genetic variation in CYP19A1 and risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions among women in Shanghai, China.

CYP19A1 encodes for aromatase, which irreversibly converts androgens to estrogens; variation in this gene may affect individual susceptibility to breast cancer and other sex hormone-dependent outcomes. In a case-control study nested within a breast self-examination trial conducted in China, we examined whether CYP19A1 polymorphisms (rs1870049, rs1004982, rs28566535, rs936306, rs11636639, rs767199, rs4775936, rs11575899, rs10046, and rs4646) were associated with risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions. Cases were diagnosed with breast cancer (n = 614) or fibrocystic breast conditions (n = 465) during 1989 to 2000. Controls were free of breast disease during the same period (n = 879). Presence of proliferative changes within the extratumoral tissue of women with breast cancer and the lesions of women with fibrocystic conditions only was assessed. None of the polymorphisms were associated with overall risk of breast cancer or fibrocystic breast conditions. Differences in breast cancer risk, however, were observed by proliferation status. The risk of breast cancer with (but not without) proliferative fibrocystic conditions was increased among women homozygous for the minor allele of rs1004982 (C), rs28566535 (C), rs936306 (T), and rs4775936 (C) relative to those homozygous for the major allele [age-adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals), 2.19 (1.24-3.85), 2.20 (1.27-3.82), 1.94 (1.13-3.30), and 1.95 (1.07-3.58), respectively]. Also, haplotypes inferred using all polymorphisms were not associated with overall risk of either outcome, although some block-specific haplotypes were associated with an increased risk of breast cancer with concurrent proliferative fibrocystic conditions. Our findings suggest that CYP19A1 variation may enhance breast cancer development in some women, but further confirmation is warranted.

Plasma isoflavones and fibrocystic breast conditions and breast cancer among women in Shanghai, China.

BACKGROUND: Proliferative benign breast conditions are associated with elevated risk of breast cancer, whereas nonproliferative conditions are not strongly associated with risk. Factors acting before onset of hyperplasia might be associated with both benign conditions and breast cancer, whereas those on the proliferative disease-to-cancer pathway would be associated only with cancer. Soy isoflavone exposure may influence breast cancer risk, but little is known of its association with benign conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We examined possible relationships between plasma genistein and daidzein concentrations and risk of breast disease in women, in a breast self-examination trial in Shanghai, China, diagnosed with breast cancer (n = 196) or a benign breast condition (n = 304), and 1,002 age-matched controls with no known breast disease. Benign conditions were classified as nonproliferative (n = 131) or proliferative with or without atypia (n = 173). RESULTS: Isoflavone concentrations were inversely associated with risk of nonproliferative and proliferative benign fibrocystic conditions, as well as with breast cancer, both with and without concomitant proliferative changes in ipsilateral noncancerous mammary epithelium (P(trend) < 0.01 for all comparisons with controls). Women in the highest quartile of plasma genistein (>76.95 ng/mL) were less likely to have breast cancer (odds ratio, 0.26; 95% confidence interval, 0.13-0.50) or benign conditions (odds ratio, 0.40; 95% confidence interval, 0.23-0.70) compared with women in the lowest quartile (<9.42 ng/mL). Observed risks for breast cancer with and without surrounding proliferative changes were not different, respectively, from observed risks for benign proliferative and nonproliferative conditions alone. CONCLUSION: Isoflavone exposure was inversely associated with fibrocystic breast conditions and breast cancer, and the results suggest that effects on cancer risk occur early in carcinogenesis.

Randomized trial of breast self-examination in Shanghai: final results.

BACKGROUND: Among women who practice breast self-examination (BSE), breast cancers may be detected when they are at an earlier stage and are smaller than in women who do not practice BSE. However, the efficacy of breast self-examination for decreasing breast cancer mortality is unproven. This study was conducted to determine whether an intensive program of BSE instruction will reduce the number of women dying of breast cancer. METHODS: From October 1989 through October 1991, 266,064 women associated with 519 factories in Shanghai were randomly assigned to a BSE instruction group (132,979 women) or a control group (133,085 women). Initial instruction in BSE was followed by reinforcement sessions 1 and 3 years later, by BSE practice under medical supervision at least every 6 months for 5 years, and by ongoing reminders to practice BSE monthly. The women were followed through December 2000 for mortality from breast cancer. Cumulative risk ratios of dying from breast cancer were estimated using Cox proportional hazards models. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: There were 135 (0.10%) breast cancer deaths in the instruction group and 131 (0.10%) in the control group. The cumulative breast cancer mortality rates through 10 to 11 years of follow-up were similar (cumulative risk ratio for women in the instruction group relative to that in the control group = 1.04, 95% confidence interval = 0.82 to 1.33; P =.72). However, more benign breast lesions were diagnosed in the instruction group than in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Intensive instruction in BSE did not reduce mortality from breast cancer. Programs to encourage BSE in the absence of mammography would be unlikely to reduce mortality from breast cancer. Women who choose to practice BSE should be informed that its efficacy is unproven and that it may increase their chances of having a benign breast biopsy.

Plasma equol concentration is not associated with breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions among women in Shanghai, China.

Equol (a bacterial metabolite of the soy isoflavone daidzein) is produced by 30% to 50% of humans and may be associated with health outcomes. We hypothesized that plasma equol would be inversely associated with risks of fibrocystic breast conditions (FBC) and breast cancer (BC). Plasma from women in a breast self-examination trial in Shanghai with BC (n=269) or FBC (n=443), and age-matched controls (n=1027) was analyzed for isoflavones. Equol was grouped into categories (<20, 20-<45, and ≥45nmol/L) and, among women with daidzein ≥20nmol/L, the log10 equol:daidzein ratio was grouped into tertiles. Where available, non-cancerous tissue (NCT) adjacent to the carcinomas from women with BC were classified as non-proliferative or proliferative (n=130 and 172, respectively). The lesions from women with FBC were similarly classified (n=99 and 92, respectively). Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated across equol categories and tertiles of log10 equol:daidzein ratio. Equol categories were not associated with FBC or BC (P>.05). For log10 equol:daidzein, compared to controls there were positive associations in the mid tertile for proliferative FBC (OR 2.06, 95% CI 1.08-3.93), BC with proliferative NCT (OR 2.95, 95% CI 1.37-6.35), and all BC regardless of histology (OR 2.37, 95% CI 1.43-3.95). However, trends in ORs with increasing plasma equol values or equol:daidzein ratios were not observed (P>.05). The results of this study do not provide evidence that equol plays a role in the etiology of these breast conditions. However, further work is needed to confirm or refute this conclusion.

Analytical validation of a standardized scoring protocol for Ki67: phase 3 of an international multicenter collaboration.

Pathological analysis of the nuclear proliferation biomarker Ki67 has multiple potential roles in breast and other cancers. However, clinical utility of the immunohistochemical (IHC) assay for Ki67 immunohistochemistry has been hampered by unacceptable between-laboratory analytical variability. The International Ki67 Working Group has conducted a series of studies aiming to decrease this variability and improve the evaluation of Ki67. This study tries to assess whether acceptable performance can be achieved on prestained core-cut biopsies using a standardized scoring method. Sections from 30 primary ER+ breast cancer core biopsies were centrally stained for Ki67 and circulated among 22 laboratories in 11 countries. Each laboratory scored Ki67 using three methods: (1) global (4 fields of 100 cells each); (2) weighted global (same as global but weighted by estimated percentages of total area); and (3) hot-spot (single field of 500 cells). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), a measure of interlaboratory agreement, for the unweighted global method (0.87; 95% credible interval (CI): 0.81-0.93) met the prespecified success criterion for scoring reproducibility, whereas that for the weighted global (0.87; 95% CI: 0.7999-0.93) and hot-spot methods (0.84; 95% CI: 0.77-0.92) marginally failed to do so. The unweighted global assessment of Ki67 IHC analysis on core biopsies met the prespecified criterion of success for scoring reproducibility. A few cases still showed large scoring discrepancies. Establishment of external quality assessment schemes is likely to improve the agreement between laboratories further. Additional evaluations are needed to assess staining variability and clinical validity in appropriate cohorts of samples.

[Randomized trial of breast self-examination in 266,064 women in Shanghai].

OBJECTIVE: A randomized trial of breast self-examination (BSE) program was carried out to evaluate whether the intensive BSE can reduce the death number of women from breast cancer. METHODS: A total of 266,064 women (age of 30 to 64 years) associated with 519 textile factories in Shanghai had been randomly assigned to a BSE instruction group (132,979 women) or a control group (133,085 women) since 1989. Initial instruction in BSE group included demonstration of proper palpation techniques. It was followed by 2 reinforcement sessions during the subsequent 4 years including video shows, BSE instruction sessions and BSE practice under medical supervision. These activities were continued for 5 years. Attendance at all events was recorded. The cohort was followed through July 2000 for development of breast diseases, and the breast cancer cases were followed up through 2001 for vital status. The data analysis methods used included Kaplan-Meier plots, Log-rank test and Cox modeling. RESULTS: Among women under instruction, 864 breast cancers were detected and 133 breast cancer deaths occurred, and 896 breast cancers were detected and 130 deaths recorded in the control group. The tumor size (P = 0.07), TNM stage (P = 0.39) and cumulative breast cancer mortality rate (P = 0.72) were not significantly different between the 2 groups. However, more and smaller fibroadenomas were detected in the instruction group than in the control group (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Intensive instruction in BSE can not reduce mortality rate of breast cancer, but more and smaller benign breast lumps can be detected.

UDP-glucuronosyltransferase and sulfotransferase polymorphisms, sex hormone concentrations, and tumor receptor status in breast cancer patients.

INTRODUCTION: UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) and sulfotransferase (SULT) enzymes are involved in removing sex hormones from circulation. Polymorphic variation in five UGT and SULT genes - UGT1A1 ((TA)6/(TA)7), UGT2B4 (Asp458Glu), UGT2B7 (His268Tyr), UGT2B15 (Asp85Tyr), and SULT1A1 (Arg213His)--may be associated with circulating sex hormone concentrations, or the risk of an estrogen receptor-negative (ER-) or progesterone receptor-negative (PR-) tumor. METHODS: Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the odds ratios of an ER- or PR- tumor associated with polymorphisms in the genes listed above for 163 breast cancer patients from a population-based cohort study of women in western Washington. Adjusted geometric mean estradiol, estrone, and testosterone concentrations were calculated within each UGT and SULT genotype for a subpopulation of postmenopausal breast cancer patients not on hormone therapy 2-3 years after diagnosis (n = 89). RESULTS: The variant allele of UGT1A1 was associated with reduced risk of an ER- tumor (P for trend = 0.03), and variants of UGT2B15 and SULT1A1 were associated with non-statistically significant risk reductions. There was some indication that plasma estradiol and testosterone concentrations varied by UGT2B15 and SULT1A1 genotypes; women with the UGT2B15 Asp/Tyr and Tyr/Tyr genotypes had higher concentrations of estradiol than women with the Asp/Asp genotype (P = 0.004). Compared with women with the SULT1A1 Arg/Arg and Arg/His genotypes, women with the His/His genotype had elevated concentrations of testosterone (P = 0.003). CONCLUSIONS: The risk of ER- breast cancer tumors may vary by UGT or SULT genotype. Further, plasma estradiol and testosterone concentrations in breast cancer patients may differ depending on some UGT and SULT genotypes.

BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations in women from Shanghai China.

Little is known about the frequency of germ-line mutations in the breast cancer susceptibility genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 among Asian populations. We investigated the distribution of BRCA1 and BRCA2 germ-line mutations and polymorphisms in a cohort of women from Shanghai, China. Study subjects totaled 1306, and included 645 women with breast cancer, 342 women with benign breast disease, and 319 unaffected controls, born between 1924 and 1958, selected from women enrolled in a randomized trial of Breast Self-Examination in Shanghai, China. Women were selected without regard to family history of breast or ovarian cancer. All of the coding regions and exon-intron boundaries were screened. Data were analyzed with respect to age at diagnosis, and family history of breast and ovarian cancer. The prevalence of known disease-associated mutations in women with breast cancer was 1.1% each, for BRCA1 and BRCA2. Among breast cancer cases with a family history of breast or ovarian cancer, 8.1% and 2.7% carried likely BRCA1 and BRCA2 disease-associated mutations, respectively. Overall, these results suggest that inherited susceptibility to breast cancer due to germ-line BRCA1/2 mutations among women with a family history of breast cancer is comparable between women from Shanghai and Caucasian women of Western European descent. Most alterations observed appear unique to the Chinese population, suggesting a resource that will be useful for assessing risk among both Chinese women and United States women of Chinese descent.

Selected estrogen receptor 1 and androgen receptor gene polymorphisms in relation to risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions among Chinese women.

BACKGROUND: Polymorphisms in sex hormone receptor-encoding genes may alter the activity of sex hormone receptors and thereby affect susceptibility to breast cancer and related outcomes. METHODS: In a case-control study of women from Shanghai, China, we examined the risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions associated with the ESR1 PvuII (rs2234693) and XbaI (rs9340799) and AR CAG repeat ((CAG)(n)) and GGC repeat ((GGC)(n)) polymorphisms among 614 women with breast cancer, 467 women with fibrocystic conditions, and 879 women without breast disease. We also evaluated whether risk differed by the presence/absence of proliferative changes (in the extratumoral epithelium or fibrocystic lesion), menopausal status, or body mass index (BMI). Age-adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated using logistic regression. RESULTS: Only associations with AR (CAG)(n) and (GGC)(n) genotypes were detected. Allocating AR (CAG)(n) genotypes into six categories, with the (CAG)(22-24)/(CAG)(22-24) genotype category designated as the reference group, the (CAG)(>24)/(CAG)(>24) genotype category was associated with an increased risk of fibrocystic breast conditions (OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.1-3.0). Relative to the AR (GGC)(17)/(GGC)(17) genotype, the (GGC)(17)/(GGC)(14) genotype was associated with elevated risks of incident breast cancer (OR, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.3-5.4) and fibrocystic conditions (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1-4.5). Results did not differ according to proliferation status, menopausal status, or BMI. CONCLUSION: Although these data lend support for a link between AR variation and breast disease development, given the low frequency of the putative risk-conferring genotypes and other constraints, further confirmation of our results is needed.

Erythrocyte fatty acids and risk of proliferative and nonproliferative fibrocystic disease in women in Shanghai, China.

BACKGROUND: Although benign breast changes are more common than breast cancer, little evidence regarding risk factors for benign breast conditions is available. Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids have antiinflammatory and antiproliferative actions and may be important in reducing the risk of benign conditions. There is a lack of research on the association of n-3 fatty acids with risk of benign fibrocystic breast changes. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of the study were to evaluate the role of n-3 and other fatty acids in the development of benign proliferative fibrocystic conditions (PFCs) and nonproliferative fibrocystic conditions (NPFCs) in the breast and to evaluate the progression of fibrocystic changes in breast cancer. DESIGN: We conducted a case-control study to determine erythrocyte fatty acid concentrations in 155 women with NPFCs, 185 women with PFCs, 241 women with breast cancer (127 with nonproliferative and 114 with proliferative changes in the noncancerous extratumoral mammary epithelium), and 1,030 control subjects. We estimated the relative risk of NPFCs, PFCs, and breast cancer with proliferative and nonproliferative changes in extratumoral tissue compared with the risk of these changes alone. RESULTS: Women in the highest quartile of eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations were 67% less likely to have an NPFC alone or with breast cancer and 49% less likely to have breast cancer than were women with PFCs. gamma-Linolenic acid (18:3n-6) was positively associated with all fibrocystic and cancerous conditions. Palmitic:palmitoleic acid (n-7 saturation index) was inversely associated with risk in all comparisons. CONCLUSION: Our results support a protective effects of n-3 fatty acid intake and the n-7 saturation index against benign fibrocystic breast changes and the progression of proliferative changes to breast cancer.

Glutathione S-transferase M1 and P1 polymorphisms and risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions in Chinese women.

Enzymes encoded by the glutathione S-tranferase mu 1 (GSTM1) and pi 1 (GSTP1) genes, which are expressed in breast tissue, catalyze the detoxification of endogenous and exogenous electrophiles. Reduced enzyme activity, due to carriage of the GSTM1 deletion or the GSTP1 Ile105Val Val allele, may therefore affect susceptibility to breast cancer and related conditions. In a case-control study of Chinese women, we examined whether these polymorphisms were associated with risk of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast conditions. Women diagnosed with breast cancer (n=615) or fibrocystic breast conditions (n=467) were compared to women without clinical breast disease (n=878). We also examined whether these associations differed by menopausal status or by presence of proliferation in the extra-tumoral epithelium among women with breast cancer and in lesions among women with fibrocystic conditions. No overall association of either GST polymorphism with risk of breast cancer or fibrocystic breast conditions was observed. There was some evidence of slightly elevated cancer risk associated with carriage of the GSTM1 null genotype and at least one GSTP1 105-Val allele (OR=1.33, 95% CI, 0.99-1.80), compared to carriage of the GSTM1 non-null and GSTP1 Ile/Ile genotypes. This relationship was stronger in women who had breast cancer with extra-tumoral tissue proliferation (OR=1.77, 95% CI, 1.03-3.04). Our results suggest that GSTM1 and GSTP1 genotypes do not individually influence susceptibility to breast cancer or fibrocystic breast conditions. The observed increased risk of breast cancer associated with joint carriage of the GSTM1 null genotype and GSTP1 105-Val allele needs confirmation in other studies.

p27(Kip1) and cyclin E expression and breast cancer survival after treatment with adjuvant chemotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Abnormal expression of the cell cycle regulatory proteins p27(Kip1) (p27) and cyclin E may be associated with breast cancer survival and relapse. We studied these markers in a clinical trial setting with patients with breast cancer treated by a uniform drug regimen so that treatment was not associated with variability in outcome. METHODS: We used tissue microarrays to evaluate the expression of p27 and cyclin E proteins by immunohistochemistry in tumor tissue from 2123 (68%) of 3122 patients with moderate-risk primary breast cancer who were enrolled in Southwest Oncology Group-Intergroup Trial S9313, in which patients were assigned to receive doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide administered concurrently (n = 1595) or sequentially (n = 1527). Disease-free and overall survival were equivalent in the two arms. Expression of the proteins was rated on a scale of 1-7, and the median value was used as the cut point. Log-rank tests and Cox regression analyses were used to assess associations with survival. Overall survival was defined as time to death from all causes; disease-free survival was defined as time to recurrence or death. All P values were from two-sided statistical tests. RESULTS: Lower p27 expression was associated with worse overall survival (unadjusted hazard ratio [HR] = 1.50, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.21 to 1.86) and disease-free survival (unadjusted HR = 1.31, 95% CI = 1.10 to 1.57) than higher p27 expression. Among hormone receptor-positive patients, lower p27 expression was associated with worse overall survival (HR = 1.42, 95% CI = 1.05 to 1.94) and worse disease-free survival (HR = 1.27, 95% CI = 0.99 to 1.63) than higher p27 expression after adjustment for treatment, menopausal status, tumor size, and number of positive lymph nodes. Among these patients, 5-year overall survival associated with higher p27 expression (0.91, 95% CI = 0.89 to 0.93) was similar to that associated with lower p27 expression (0.85, 95% CI = 0.82 to 0.87). No association between p27 expression and survival was found in hormone receptor-negative patients. Cyclin E expression was not statistically significantly associated with overall survival (HR = 1.12, 95% CI = 0.91 to 1.38) or disease-free survival (HR = 1.09, 95% CI = 0.92 to 1.29). CONCLUSIONS: Low p27 expression appears to be associated with poor prognosis, especially among patients with steroid receptor-positive tumors.

Dietary and other risk factors in women having fibrocystic breast conditions with and without concurrent breast cancer: a nested case-control study in Shanghai, China.

Risk of breast cancer is increased in women with proliferative benign breast conditions. Most of these conditions, however, do not progress to breast cancer. The purpose of our study was to identify factors possibly associated with this progression. Women with proliferative fibrocystic breast conditions alone (214), and women with proliferative fibrocystic breast conditions and concurrent breast cancer (130), were compared to each other, and each of these groups of women were also compared to 1,070 controls; and 176 women with non-proliferative benign breast conditions alone, and 155 also with breast cancer, were similarly compared. All study subjects were selected from a cohort of women enrolled in a trial of breast self-examination in Shanghai. Women were interviewed to ascertain information on suspected risk factors for breast cancer and dietary habits. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Increased risks of both proliferative fibrocystic breast conditions alone, and with breast cancer, were associated with low parity, a prior benign breast lump and breast cancer in a first-degree relative. Decreasing trends in the risk of both conditions with increasing intake of fruits and vegetables were observed. No factors were significantly associated with risk of breast cancer relative to risk of proliferative changes. Similar, but in some instances weaker, associations were observed for non-proliferative fibrocystic conditions with and without breast cancer. The possible risk or protective factors that were observed in our study most likely alter the risk of breast cancer at an early stage in the carcinogenic process, and probably do not alter risk of progression from proliferative fibrocystic breast conditions to breast cancer.

Racial differences in the expression of cell cycle-regulatory proteins in breast carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: African-American (AA) women are more likely to be diagnosed with an advanced stage of breast carcinoma than are white women. After adjustment for disease stage, many studies indicate that tumors in AA women are more likely than tumors in white women are to exhibit a high level of cell proliferation and features of poor prognosis. The purpose of the current study was to compare tumor characteristics and cell cycle alterations in AA women and white women that might affect the aggressiveness of breast carcinoma. METHODS: The study included 124 AA and 397 white women, ages 20-54 years. These women were enrolled in a case-control study in Atlanta, Georgia, between 1990 and 1992. Breast tumor specimens obtained from these women were centrally reviewed for histologic characteristics and evaluated for expression of estrogen and progesterone receptors (ER/PR), c-ErbB-2, Ki-67, p53, cyclin E, cyclin D1, p27, p16, pRb, and p21 by immunohistochemistry. Logistic regression models were used to assess the age- and stage-adjusted associations of various tumor characteristics with race. RESULTS: The odds of a breast carcinoma diagnosis at a younger age and at a later stage were higher for AA women than for white women. After adjustment for disease stage and age at diagnosis, AA women also were found to have increased odds of having a higher-grade tumor, a higher mitotic index, marked tumor necrosis, ductal histology, loss of ER and PR, overexpression of cyclin E, p16, and p53 and low expression of cyclin D1 at diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: The observed differences between tumor specimens obtained from AA women and tumor specimens obtained from white women, independent of stage and age at diagnosis, indicated that race may be a determinant, or a surrogate for other determinants, of aggressive breast carcinoma and specific cell cycle defects.

A case-control study of risk factors for fibrocystic breast conditions: Shanghai Nutrition and Breast Disease Study, China, 1995-2000.

This study was conducted to identify reproductive and dietary factors associated with benign proliferative mammary epithelial cell changes. Subjects were women enrolled in a randomized trial of breast self-examination in Shanghai, China. Women who developed fibrocystic breast conditions classified as nonproliferative (175 women), proliferative (181 women), or proliferative with atypia (33 women) between 1995 and 2000 and 1,070 unaffected trial participants were administered general risk factor and food frequency questionnaires. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals. High parity and consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables were more strongly associated with a reduced risk of proliferative and atypical lesions than with nonproliferative conditions. For the fourth quartile of consumption versus the first, odds ratios for lesions diagnosed as nonproliferative, proliferative, and proliferative with atypia were 0.4 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.2, 0.7), 0.2 (95% CI: 0.1, 0.4), and 0.1 (95% CI: 0.03, 0.5), respectively, for fruit intake and 0.6 (95% CI: 0.3, 1.1), 0.4 (95% CI: 0.2, 0.7), and 0.1 (95% CI: 0.1, 0.9), respectively, for vegetable intake. Reduced but nonsignificant risks in relation to soy products were observed for proliferative and atypical lesions. No single nutrient or botanical family was appreciably more strongly associated with proliferative conditions than with nonproliferative conditions, after results were controlled for total fruit and vegetable consumption. A diet rich in fruits and vegetables may reduce cellular proliferation in the mammary epithelium; this is one mechanism by which such a diet could reduce risk of breast cancer.