[Analysis of budgetary impact of COVID-19 vaccination in Latin AmericaAnálise do impacto orçamentário da vacinação contra a COVID-19 na América Latina]. / Análisis de impacto presupuestal de la vacunación contra COVID-19 en América Latina.

Objective: To estimate the budgetary impact of COVID-19 vaccination in six Latin American countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, during the 2021-2022 biennium. Methods: Vaccines from Sinopharm (BBIBP-CorV), Janssen (JNJ-78436735), Gamaleya Institute (Gam-COVID-Vac), Sinovac (CoronaVac), CanSino (Convidecia), AstraZeneca (Vaxzevria), Moderna (mRNA-1273), and Pfizer (BNT162b2) were evaluated, according to their availability in each country. The health system perspective was adopted, so that only direct health care costs were included. The time horizon adopted took into account the implementation times of each vaccination plan, excluding children under 16 years of age and pregnant persons. The following costs were included: cost of vaccination/vaccine administration and costs of hospitalization (general isolation, stepdown care, and intensive care). Two vaccination scenarios were compared: 1) population wanting to be vaccinated (according to national surveys); and 2) population that should be vaccinated (total population susceptible to vaccination). The aggregate costs for each vaccination scenario were compared with the no-vaccination scenario. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were also performed. Results: The different COVID-19 vaccination regimens available in Latin America generate potential savings ranging from USD 100 million to USD 1.5 billion per country for the 2021-2022 biennium, assuming that the vaccination plan proposed for each country is fully implemented. Conclusions: COVID-19 vaccination is a strategy that not only reduces morbidity and mortality in Latin America, but also generates potential savings for health systems in the region.

Objetivo: Estimar o impacto orçamentário da vacinação contra a COVID-19 em seis países da América Latina: Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colômbia, México e Peru, no período 2021-2022. Métodos: Foram avaliadas as vacinas da Sinopharm (BBIBP-CorV), Janssen (JNJ-78436735), Instituto Gamaleya (Gam-COVID-Vac), Sinovac (CoronaVac), CanSino (Convidecia), AstraZeneca (Vaxzevria), Moderna (mRNA-1273) e Pfizer (BNT162b2), conforme a disponibilidade para cada país. Adotou-se a perspectiva do sistema de saúde, de forma que só foram incluídos custos médicos diretos. O horizonte temporal foi adotado levando em consideração os tempos de implementação de cada plano de vacinação, excluindo crianças menores de 16 anos e gestantes. Foram incluídos os seguintes custos: custos de vacinação e aplicação, custos gerais de hospitalização, isolamento, e cuidados intermediários e intensivos. Compararam-se dois cenários de vacinação: 1) população disposta a se vacinar (com base em pesquisas nacionais) e 2) população que deveria ser vacinada (total elegível de vacinação). Os custos agregados para cada cenário de vacinação foram comparados com o cenário de não vacinação. Além disso, foram realizadas análises de sensibilidade determinísticas e probabilísticas. Resultados: Os diferentes esquemas de vacinação contra a COVID-19 disponíveis na América Latina geram economias potenciais entre 100 milhões e 1,5 bilhão de dólares por país para o período 2021-2022, considerando a implementação completa do plano de vacinação previsto em cada país. Conclusões: A vacinação contra a COVID-19 é uma estratégia que, além de reduzir a morbidade e a mortalidade na América Latina, gera economias potenciais para os sistemas de saúde da região.

Prevalence of lower urinary tract symptoms and overactive bladder in men and women over 18 years old: The Colombian overactive bladder and lower urinary tract symptoms (COBaLT) study.

AIMS: To estimate the prevalence of LUTS and overactive bladder (OAB) in the Colombian population. METHODS: A cross-sectional, population-based study was conducted in men and women ≥18 years using directed interviews and self-administered questionnaires in five main cities in Colombia. A sample size of 1054 subjects was estimated (prevalence of LUTS/OAB 15%, CI 95%, statistical power 80%, precision 3%). We used a multi-stage probabilistic sampling technique to randomly select individuals in the community, stratified by socioeconomic status, gender, and age. We used the 2002 ICS and 2010 IUGA/ICS definitions as well as validated questionnaires in Spanish. Descriptive statistics were employed. RESULTS: A total of 1060 participants were included. Mean age was 42 (range 18-89) years. The prevalence of at least one LUTS was 84%, while overactive bladder was reported by 31.8% participants. Among individuals with at least one LUTS, 13.2% would feel "mostly unsatisfied," "unhappy," or "terrible" to spend the rest of their lives with their current urinary condition. Nocturia was the most prevalent LUTS (55.3%), followed by urgency (46.4%) and frequency (45.8%). Urge, stress, and mixed urinary incontinence were reported by 15.3%, 8.6%, and 7% of participants, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: LUTS are highly prevalent in the Colombian population and severely affect quality of life. This is the first study conducted in Colombia and Latin America focused on evaluating LUTS in men and women of all age groups of interest using a multi-stage probabilistic sampling technique. These results may have a significant influence on health decision-making and assessment of future therapies.

Clinical course of sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock in a cohort of infected patients from ten Colombian hospitals.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis has several clinical stages, and mortality rates are different for each stage. Our goal was to establish the evolution and the determinants of the progression of clinical stages, from infection to septic shock, over the first week, as well as their relationship to 7-day and 28-day mortality. METHODS: This is a secondary analysis of a multicenter cohort of inpatients hospitalized in general wards or intensive care units (ICUs). The general estimating equations (GEE) model was used to estimate the risk of progression and the determinants of stages of infection over the first week. Cox regression with time-dependent covariates and fixed covariates was used to determine the factors related with 7-day and 28-day mortality, respectively. RESULTS: In 2681 patients we show that progression to severe sepsis and septic shock increases with intraabdominal and respiratory sources of infection [OR = 1,32; 95%IC = 1,20-1,46 and OR = 1.21, 95%CI = 1,11-1,33 respectively], as well as according to Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) [OR = 1,03; 95%CI = 1,02-1,03] and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) [OR = 1,16; 95%CI = 1,14-1,17] scores. The variables related with first-week mortality were progression to severe sepsis [HR = 2,13; 95%CI = 1,13-4,03] and septic shock [HR = 3,00; 95%CI = 1,50-5.98], respiratory source of infection [HR = 1,76; 95%IC = 1,12-2,77], APACHE II [HR = 1,07; 95% CI = 1,04-1,10] and SOFA [HR = 1,09; 95%IC = 1,04-1,15] scores. CONCLUSIONS: Intraabdominal and respiratory sources of infection, independently of SOFA and APACHE II scores, increase the risk of clinical progression to more severe stages of sepsis; and these factors, together with progression of the infection itself, are the main determinants of 7-day and 28-day mortality.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of spontaneous vaginal delivery vs elective cesarean delivery for maternal outcomes in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: In worldwide literature, it has been found that cesarean deliveries represent higher costs and are associated with maternal morbidity and other complications. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to estimate the cost-effectiveness of elective cesarean delivery compared with spontaneous vaginal delivery in short-term maternal outcomes for low-risk obstetrical population in Colombia. STUDY DESIGN: A cost-effectiveness study using a healthcare-system perspective was performed in 2019 in Colombia. The reference population were women with full-term and low-risk pregnancy, either by spontaneous vaginal delivery or elective cesarean delivery under medical or nonmedical indications. An analytical decision model (decision tree) was designed for maternal outcomes. The time horizon was 42 days postpartum, and the health effects were measured by Quality Adjusted Life Years. A review of the literature and a validation process by a national expert committee were conducted to determine the maternal outcomes and estimate their probabilities. Costs were estimated with a top-down analysis, an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was calculated, and finally, a sensitivity analysis was performed. RESULTS: Within a 42-day time horizon, it was found that spontaneous vaginal delivery is the less-expensive and more-effective mode of delivery, it showed a reduction in costs (324 USD) and a gain in Quality Adjusted Life Years (0.03) compared with elective cesarean delivery. Our analysis suggests that spontaneous vaginal delivery is the dominant alternative compared with elective cesarean delivery. CONCLUSION: Spontaneous vaginal delivery showed to be the cost-effective mode of delivery for low-risk obstetrical population in Columbia. These results are useful not only for obstetricians but for decision makers, who should encourage nationwide health policies in favor of spontaneous vaginal delivery.

Costos Unitarios Para Procedimientos en Salud en Colombia: Un Insumo Decisivo Para las Evaluaciones Económicas en Salud.

OBJECTIVES: Since 2011, there is a recommendation in Colombia to value health procedures: apply the tariffs of a 2001 manual used in a former public insurer with an adjustment factor of 35% (Instituto de Seguros Sociales [ISS] 2001). Nevertheless, the adjustment factor is not periodically updated, which limits the external validity of studies using these values and might also affect internal validity of studies, given that we are using possibly biased unit costs. This study aimed to compare unit values for health procedures using 2 sources: the ISS 2001 manual and individual records of service provision in Colombia (Registros Individuales de Prestación de Servicios de Salud [RIPS]), to evaluate the validity of the adjustment factor proposed in the Colombian reference case. METHODS: Unit values of health procedures reported in the Los Registros Individuales de Prestación de Servicios de Salud between 2013 and 2016 were compared with the value resulting from applying the assumption of ISS 2001 +35%. Rate variations were analyzed at the national level, by region and type of procedure. RESULTS: In the base case, the average rate variation at the national level was 142% with respect to the base value of the ISS manual; the value for nonsurgical procedures is 63% higher than the ISS 2001 rates, whereas for surgical procedures the difference is 299%. CONCLUSIONS: It is necessary to update the current recommendation in Colombia to estimate the unit cost of health procedures, to improve the external validity of economic evaluations and budget impact analysis in the country.

Cost-effectiveness of a Dengue Vector Control Intervention in Colombia.

Dengue is a public health problem in Colombia and in the municipality of Girardot, an area of high risk for dengue transmission. We present the results of an economic evaluation from the societal perspective and 1-year time horizon comparing the regular control program for dengue prevention versus an intervention that comprised an environmental management strategy by covering the most Aedes aegypti productive breeding sites with insecticide covers, community actions, and educational activities. The effectiveness of the intervention was measured as the reduction in probability of dengue infection obtained from a community trial. Resource use was estimated from clinical records that were validated by clinical experts; unit costs were taken from national tariffs. Patient costs were obtained from a household survey. We found that the intervention generated an additional cost of USD20.9 per household and an incremental effectiveness of 0.00173 (reduction in the probability of reported dengue cases). Overall, both alternatives generate similar effectiveness, but the new intervention was associated with increasing costs. We conclude the new intervention is a potentially cost-effective option in areas where high prevalence of dengue exists.

Access to paediatric cardiac surgery in Colombia: a population-based study.

OBJECTIVES: Globally congenital heart disease mortality is declining, yet the proportion of infant deaths attributable to heart disease rises in Colombia and other middle-sociodemographic countries. We aimed to assess the accessibility of paediatric cardiac surgery (PCS) to children <18 years of age in 2016 in the South American country of Colombia. METHODS: In Bogotá, Colombia, a multi-national team used cross-sectional and retrospective cohort study designs to adapt and evaluate 4 health system indicators at the national level: first, the population with timely geographic access to an institution providing PCS; second, the number of paediatric cardiac surgeons; third, this specialized procedure volume and its national distribution; and fourth, the 30-day perioperative mortality rate after PCS in Colombia. RESULTS: Geospatial mapping approximates 64% (n = 9 894 356) of the under-18 Colombian population lives within 2-h drivetime of an institution providing PCS. Twenty-eight cardiovascular surgeons report performing PCS, 82% (n = 23) with formal training. In 2016, 1281 PCS procedures were registered, 90% of whom were performed in 6 of the country's 32 departments. National non-risk-adjusted all-cause 30-day perioperative mortality rate after PCS was 2.73% (n = 35). CONCLUSIONS: Colombia's paediatric population had variable access to cardiac surgery in 2016, largely dependent upon geography. While the country may have the capacity to provide timely, high-quality care to those who need it, our study enables future comparative analyses to measure the impact of health system interventions facilitating healthcare equity for the underserved populations across Colombia and the Latin American region.

The epidemiology of sepsis in Colombia: a prospective multicenter cohort study in ten university hospitals.

OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine the frequency and the clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of sepsis in a hospital-based population in Colombia. DESIGN: Prospective cohort. SETTING: Ten general hospitals in the four main cities of Colombia. PATIENTS: Consecutive patients admitted in emergency rooms, intensive care units, and general wards from September 1, 2007, to February 29, 2008, with confirmation of infection according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention definitions. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The following information was recorded: demographic, clinical, and microbiologic characteristics; Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment scores; requirement for intensive care unit; length of stay; and 28-day all-cause mortality. During a period of 6 months, 2,681 patients were recruited: 69% and 31% with community-acquired and hospital-acquired infections, respectively. The mean age was 55 yrs (SD = 21), 51% were female, and the median length of stay was 10 days (interquartile range, 5-19). The mean Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation score was 11.5 (SD = 7) and the mean Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score was 3.8 (SD = 3). A total of 422 patients with community-acquired infections (16%) were admitted to the intensive care unit as a consequence of their infection and the median length of stay was 4.5 days in the intensive care unit. At admission, 2516 patients (94%) met at least one sepsis criterion and 1,658 (62%) met at least one criterion for severe sepsis. Overall, the 28-day mortality rates of patients with infection without sepsis, sepsis without organ dysfunction, severe sepsis without shock, and septic shock were 3%, 7.3%, 21.9%, and 45.6%, respectively. In community-acquired infections, the most frequent diagnosis was urinary tract infection in 28.6% followed by pneumonia in 22.8% and soft tissue infections in 21.8%. Within hospital-acquired infections, pneumonia was the most frequent diagnosis in 26.6% followed by urinary tract infection in 20.4% and soft tissue infections in 17.4%. CONCLUSIONS: In a general inpatient population of Colombia, the rates of severe sepsis and septic shock are higher than those reported in the literature. The observed mortality is higher than the predicted by the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score.

Use of the six core surgical indicators from the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery in Colombia: a situational analysis.

BACKGROUND: Surgical, anaesthetic, and obstetric (SAO) health-care system strengthening is needed to address the emergency and essential surgical care that approximately 5 billion individuals lack globally. To our knowledge, a complete, non-modelled national situational analysis based on the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery surgical indicators has not been done. We aimed to undertake a complete situation analysis of SAO system preparedness, service delivery, and financial risk protection using the core surgical indicators proposed by the Commission in Colombia, an upper-middle-income country. METHODS: Data to inform the six core surgical system indicators were abstracted from the Colombian national health information system and the most recent national health survey done in 2007. Geographical access to a Bellwether hospital (defined as a hospital capable of providing essential and emergency surgery) within 2 h was assessed by determining 2 h drive time boundaries around Bellwether facilities and the population within and outside these boundaries. Physical 2 h access to a Bellwether was determined by the presence of a motor vehicle suitable for individual transportation. The Department Administrativo Nacional de Estadística population projection for 2016 and 2018 was used to calculate the SAO provider density. Total operative volume was calculated for 2016 and expressed nationally per 100 000 population. The total number of postoperative deaths that occurred within 30 days of a procedure was divided by the total operative volume to calculate the all-cause, non-risk-adjusted postoperative mortality. The proportion of the population subject to impoverishing costs was calculated by subtracting the baseline number of impoverished individuals from those who fell below the poverty line once out-of-pocket payments were accounted for. Individuals who incurred out-of-pocket payments that were more than 10% of their annual household income were considered to have experienced catastrophic expenditure. Using GIS mapping, SAO system preparedness, service delivery, and cost protection were also contextualised by socioeconomic status. FINDINGS: In 2016, at least 7·1 million people (15·1% of the population) in Colombia did not have geographical access to SAO services within a 2 h driving distance. SAO provider density falls short of the Commission's minimum target of 20 providers per 100 000 population, at an estimated density of 13·7 essential SAO health-care providers per 100 000 population in 2018. Lower socioeconomic status of a municipality, as indicated by proportion of people enrolled in the subsidised insurance regime, was associated with a smaller proportion of the population in the municipality being within 2 h of a Bellwether facility, and the most socioeconomically disadvantaged municipalities often had no SAO providers. Furthermore, Colombian providers appear to be working at or beyond capacity, doing 2690-3090 procedures per 100 000 population annually, but they have maintained a relatively low median postoperative mortality of 0·74% (IQR 0·48-0·84). Finally, out-of-pocket expenses for indirect health-care costs were a key barrier to accessing surgical care, prompting 3·1 million (6·4% of the population) individuals to become impoverished and 9·5 million (19·4% of the population) individuals to incur catastrophic expenditures in 2007. INTERPRETATION: We did a non-modelled, indicator-based situation analysis of the Colombian SAO system, finding that it has not yet met, but is working towards achieving, the targets set by the Lancet Commission on Global Surgery. The observed interdependence of these indicators and correlation with socioeconomic status are consistent with well recognised factors and outcomes of social, health, and health-care inequity. The internal consistency observed in Colombia's situation analysis validates the use of the indicators and has now informed development of an early national SAO plan in Colombia, to set a data-informed stage for implementation and evaluation of timely, safe, and affordable SAO health care, within the National Public Health Decennial Plan, which is due in 2022. FUNDING: Zoll Medical.

Comparison of the QuantiFERON-TB and tuberculin skin test for detection of latent tuberculosis infection in cancer patients in a developing country.

Cancer patients have an increased risk of reactivation of latent tuberculosis infection. It is unknown which strategy on screening should be used in this population in developing countries. We aimed to determine the concordance between the tuberculin skin test (TST) and QuantiFERON®-TB (QFT) assay in order to diagnose latent tuberculosis infection in cancer patients. We conducted a cross-sectional study of the agreement of diagnostic tests. Prevalence and agreement between tests were calculated. A logistic regression to assess predictors of discordance was performed. The accuracy of the TST to predict QFT results by a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was evaluated. We included 149 adults with cancer without active tuberculosis. Prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection was 21.5% (n=32), defined as positive results on either test. Test agreement was moderate for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection (κ=0.43, 90% CI 0.26-0.6). No predictor was associated with the chance of discordant results. Agreement improved slightly using a cut-off point ≥8 mm (κ=0.5, 90% CI 0.35-0.66). In a moderate-incidence setting, a moderate agreement was found between tests in cancer patients. Modification of the cut-off points of test results achieved marginally better agreement between the TST and QFT.

Análisis de impacto presupuestal de la vacunación contra COVID-19 en América Latina / Analysis of budgetary impact of COVID-19 vaccination in Latin America / Análise do impacto orçamentário da vacinação contra a COVID-19 na América Latina

RESUMEN Objetivo. Estimar el impacto presupuestal de la vacunación contra COVID-19 en seis países de América Latina: Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, México y Perú, durante el periodo 2021-2022. Métodos. Se evaluaron las vacunas de Sinopharm (BBIBP-CorV), Janssen (JNJ-78436735), Instituto de Gamaleya (Gam-COVID-Vac), Sinovac (CoronaVac), CanSino (Convidecia), AstraZeneca (Vaxzevria), Moderna (mRNA-1273) y Pfizer (BNT162b2), según disponibilidad para cada país. Se adoptó la perspectiva del sistema de salud, de manera que solo se incluyeron costos médicos directos. El horizonte temporal se adoptó teniendo en cuenta los tiempos de implementación de cada plan de vacunación, excluyendo menores de 16 años y gestantes. Se incluyeron los siguientes costos: costo de la vacunación y aplicación, costos de la hospitalización general aislamiento, cuidado intermedio e intensivo. Se compararon dos escenarios de vacunación: 1) Población que desea vacunarse (según las encuestas nacionales) y 2) Población que debería vacunarse (total susceptible de vacunación). Los costos agregados para cada escenario de vacunación se compararon con el escenario de no vacunación. Adicionalmente, se realizaron análisis de sensibilidad determinísticos y probabilísticos. Resultados. Los diferentes esquemas de vacunación contra COVID-19 disponibles en América Latina generan ahorros potenciales que oscilan entre USD 100 y USD 1 500 millones de dólares por país para el período 2021-2022, asumiendo que se logra implementar en su totalidad el plan de vacunación previsto en cada país. Conclusiones. La vacunación contra COVID-19 es una estrategia que además de reducir la morbilidad y mortalidad para Latinoamérica, genera ahorros potenciales para los sistemas de salud en la región.

ABSTRACT Objective. To estimate the budgetary impact of COVID-19 vaccination in six Latin American countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru, during the 2021-2022 biennium. Methods. Vaccines from Sinopharm (BBIBP-CorV), Janssen (JNJ-78436735), Gamaleya Institute (Gam-COVID-Vac), Sinovac (CoronaVac), CanSino (Convidecia), AstraZeneca (Vaxzevria), Moderna (mRNA-1273), and Pfizer (BNT162b2) were evaluated, according to their availability in each country. The health system perspective was adopted, so that only direct health care costs were included. The time horizon adopted took into account the implementation times of each vaccination plan, excluding children under 16 years of age and pregnant persons. The following costs were included: cost of vaccination/vaccine administration and costs of hospitalization (general isolation, stepdown care, and intensive care). Two vaccination scenarios were compared: 1) population wanting to be vaccinated (according to national surveys); and 2) population that should be vaccinated (total population susceptible to vaccination). The aggregate costs for each vaccination scenario were compared with the no-vaccination scenario. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were also performed. Results. The different COVID-19 vaccination regimens available in Latin America generate potential savings ranging from USD 100 million to USD 1.5 billion per country for the 2021-2022 biennium, assuming that the vaccination plan proposed for each country is fully implemented. Conclusions. COVID-19 vaccination is a strategy that not only reduces morbidity and mortality in Latin America, but also generates potential savings for health systems in the region.

RESUMO Objetivo. Estimar o impacto orçamentário da vacinação contra a COVID-19 em seis países da América Latina: Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colômbia, México e Peru, no período 2021-2022. Métodos. Foram avaliadas as vacinas da Sinopharm (BBIBP-CorV), Janssen (JNJ-78436735), Instituto Gamaleya (Gam-COVID-Vac), Sinovac (CoronaVac), CanSino (Convidecia), AstraZeneca (Vaxzevria), Moderna (mRNA-1273) e Pfizer (BNT162b2), conforme a disponibilidade para cada país. Adotou-se a perspectiva do sistema de saúde, de forma que só foram incluídos custos médicos diretos. O horizonte temporal foi adotado levando em consideração os tempos de implementação de cada plano de vacinação, excluindo crianças menores de 16 anos e gestantes. Foram incluídos os seguintes custos: custos de vacinação e aplicação, custos gerais de hospitalização, isolamento, e cuidados intermediários e intensivos. Compararam-se dois cenários de vacinação: 1) população disposta a se vacinar (com base em pesquisas nacionais) e 2) população que deveria ser vacinada (total elegível de vacinação). Os custos agregados para cada cenário de vacinação foram comparados com o cenário de não vacinação. Além disso, foram realizadas análises de sensibilidade determinísticas e probabilísticas. Resultados. Os diferentes esquemas de vacinação contra a COVID-19 disponíveis na América Latina geram economias potenciais entre 100 milhões e 1,5 bilhão de dólares por país para o período 2021-2022, considerando a implementação completa do plano de vacinação previsto em cada país. Conclusões. A vacinação contra a COVID-19 é uma estratégia que, além de reduzir a morbidade e a mortalidade na América Latina, gera economias potenciais para os sistemas de saúde da região.

Evaluación costo-efectividad de las prótesis con superficie cerámica-polietileno vs. metal-polietileno para reemplazo articular primario de cadera en Colombia / Cost-Effectiveness of Ceramic-Polyethylene Vs Metal-Polyethylene Bearing for Primary Total Hip Replacement in Colombia

Introducción Existe una diferencia estadísticamente significativa del 1.2% en la tasa de revisión a 15 años a favor de cerámica- polietileno altamente entrecruzado (CP), demostrada en el registro nacional de artroplastia australiano. Nuestro objetivo es evaluar la costo-efectividad entre los pares: cerámica-polietileno altamente entrecruzado (CP) y metal- polietileno altamente entrecruzado (MP) para el pagador en Colombia. Materiales y métodos Se construyó un árbol de decisiones TreeAge Pro® comparando CP vs MP desde la perspectiva del Sistema de Salud Colombiano (SSC). Los parámetros se tomaron de la mejor evidencia disponible, para la efectividad se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura y para los costos se usaron tarifas del mercado local. Se determinó la relación de costo-efectividad incremental, asumiendo un horizonte temporal de 15 años y aplicando una tasa de descuento del 5% para costos y efectividad. La incertidumbre fue controlada por un análisis de sensibilidad determinístico y probabilístico. Resultados Para el SSC, con un umbral de 1 PIB per cápita por año de vida ganado ajustado por calidad (AVAC), en adultos llevados a RTC el uso de CP no es costo-efectiva, dado que la efectividad es similar (MP:11,32 AVAC vs CP: 11,36 AVAC) y el costo es tres veces mayor (MP $ 861.826 COP vs CP $ 2.298.090 COP). El análisis de sensibilidad determinístico demuestra que la variable más importante en el resultado es el costo de la cerámica. Discusión Para el SSC el uso rutinario de cabezas de cerámica en RTC no es una estrategia costo-efectiva.

Background There is a statistically significant difference of 1.2% in the revision rate in a 15 year follow in favour of the use of ceramic on highly cross-linked polyethylene (CP) recently described in the Australian National Joint Registry. The purpose of this study is to compare the cost-effectiveness of CP implants and metal-on-highly cross-linked polyethylene (MP) implants in patients undergoing total hip replacement (THR). Materials and methods A TreeAge Pro® decision tree was constructed in order to determine cost-effectiveness between two bearing surfaces: CP or MP from the perspective of the Colombian Health Care System (CHCS). The model parameters where taken from the best available evidence. For the effectiveness, a systematic review of the literature was performed, and costs were taken from local market rates. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was determined assuming a time horizon of 15 years, and a discount rate of 5% was used for costs and effectiveness. Cost-effectiveness uncertainty was controlled with deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analysis. Results For the CHCS, with a 1PIB per capita threshold adjusted per QALY in adults undergoing (THR), the use of a CP implant is not cost-effective, given that the effectiveness is similar (11.32 QALY for MP vs 11.36 QALY for CP), and the cost is three times higher (MP $ 861.826 COP vs CP $ 2.298.090 COP). The deterministic sensitivity analysis showed that the most important variable in the results is the ceramic cost. Discussion for the CHCS the routine use of ceramic-highly cross-linked polyethylene bearing surface in a THR is not a cost-effective strategy.

[The cost-effectiveness of interferon beta treatment in patients with a clinically isolated syndrome in Colombia]. / Costo-efectividad del tratamiento con interferón beta en pacientes con síndrome clínico aislado de alto riesgo en Colombia.

INTRODUCTION: Approximately 85% of patients with multiple sclerosis have an initial demyelinating event. Treatment with interferon beta delays the progression of multiple sclerosis for nearly two years in patients with a clinically isolated syndrome. In Colombia, interferon is very expensive when compared to other countries. OBJECTIVE: We sought to determine the cost-effectiveness of a two-year interferon beta treatment within Colombia in patients with a clinically isolated syndrome. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Based on patient and society perspectives, a cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted using a decision tree. A variety of probabilities were defined after a systematic review of the available literature. The disease costs were calculated by reviewing medical charts at the Hospital San Ignacio University and surveys completed by multiple sclerosis patients. To control for uncertainty in these data, analysis of approximately one-thousand patients was performed using Monte Carlo methods. RESULTS: The two-year treatment cost per patient exceeds Col$ 95,000,000 (US$ 50,000). Approximately 80 % of this cost corresponds to medications (US$ 40,500). The price of relapse and indirect costs totals Col$ 41,632,149 (US$ 21,744) and Col$ 11,656,389 (US$ 6,088), respectively. Treatment represents an increase of 0.06 quality-adjusted life years (QALY). The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio exceeds the threshold, regardless of the use of Monte Carlo methods for analysis. CONCLUSION: Administering interferon beta over the course of two years to high-risk patients with a clinically isolated syndrome is not cost-effective within Colombia.

Epidemiology of sepsis in Colombian intensive care units.

INTRODUCTION: Currently, there is not enough data available concerning sepsis in developing countries, especially in Latin America. OBJECTIVE: We developed a study aimed at determining the frequency, clinical and epidemiological characteristics, and the consequences of sepsis in patients requiring admission to intensive care units in Colombia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study carried out over a six-month period, from September 1, 2007, to February 28, 2008, in ten medical/surgical intensive care units in four Colombian cities. Patients were considered eligible if they had a probable or confirmed diagnosis of infection according to medical records. We recorded demographic characteristics, first admission diagnosis and co-morbidities, clinical status, and sepsis, severe sepsis or septic shock. RESULTS: During the study period, 826 patients were admitted to the intensive care units. From these patients, 421 (51%) developed sepsis in the community, 361 (44%) in the ICU, and 44 (5%) during hospitalization in the general ward. Two hundred and fifty three patients (30.6%) had involvement of one organ system: 20% had respiratory involvement, followed by kidney and central nervous system involvement with 3.4% and 2.7%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In our cohort of septic patients, the prevalence of sepsis treated in ICU is similar to that reported in other studies, as well as the overall mortality.

[Serum lactate in the emergency department as a prognostic factor in patients with sepsis without hypotension]. / Lactato sérico en urgencias como factor pronóstico en pacientes con sepsis sin hipotensión.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The relationship between lactate and mortality in patients without hypotension has not been appropriately explored. Our aim was to determine the usefulness of serum lactate as a prognostic factor of 28-day mortality in patients admitted to the Emergency Department with clinical diagnosis of sepsis without septic shock. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We performed a secondary analysis of the study The epidemiology of sepsis in Colombia, a prospective cohort of patients from 10 general hospitals in 4 Colombian cities. We analyzed patients without hypotension with serum lactate available and admitted with community-acquired infections, which were confirmed according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC criteria. A logistical regression was performed adjusting for age, sex, comorbidities and severity scores. RESULTS: We included 961 patients aged 57.2 ± 21.0 years, 54.2% were females, mean SOFA score was 3.0 ± 2.3 and APACHE score was 11.1±6.4. We observed a linear relationship between serum lactate and the odds of death, and after adjustment there was a significant and independent association between lactate and mortality (odds ratio 1,16, 95% confidence interval 1.02-1.33). CONCLUSION: Serum lactate is independently and significantly associated with 28-day mortality among patients with infection who present to the Emergency Department without hypotension. Besides, mortality increases in a linear way with serum lactate from any detectable value.

Costos e impacto económico del síndrome de apnea-hipopnea obstructiva del sueño (SAHOS) para la salud pública / Cost and economic impact of obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) on public health

Resumen El síndrome de apnea-hipopnea obstructiva del sueño (SAHOS) no tratado se asocia con costos directos e indirectos significativos. Este trastorno también tiene un impacto negativo sobre el desempeño y la seguridad laboral y está implicado en una proporción considerable de accidentes automovilísticos. El diagnóstico oportuno y la terapia óptima han mostrado disminución en la utilización de los sistemas de salud y en los costos, al tiempo que atenúan los riesgos adversos. Del mismo modo, el SAHOS no tratado se asocia con incremento en las tasas de desempleo. Para los profesionales de la salud, tener un paciente con SAHOS involucrado en una colisión automovilística es de crucial importancia debido al daño personal y público, así como la potencial discapacidad física por el accidente. En Latinoamérica se requiere de la medición de los costos directos e indirectos dado el problema de salud pública que tiene asociado el SAHOS y las implicaciones mencionadas.

Abstract Untreated obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) is associated with significant direct and indirect medical costs. This disorder also has a significant negative impact on work performance and safety, and is implicated in a substantial proportion of motor vehicular crashes. Timely diagnosis and optimal therapy have shown a lower utilization rate related to health care systems and reduced costs, while adverse risks are mitigated at the same time. Prompt diagnosis and optimal therapy have shown to decrease heath care utilizaton and costs, as well as mitigating these adverse risks. Similarly, untreated OSAHS is associated with higher unemployment rates. Forhealthcareprofessionals,having apatientwithOSAHS involved in a MVC is of paramount importance for a several reasons, including personal and public damage, as well as the potential physical disability that may be caused by the accident. In Latin America, measuring direct and indirect costs is necessary considering the public health problem associated with OSAHS and the implications mentioned above.

Study of body fluid samples using flow cytometry: Six years of experience at the Hospital Universitario San Ignacio - Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota - Colombia / Estudio de muestras de fluidos corporales utilizando citometría de flujo: seis años de experiencia en el Hospital Universitario San Ignacio - Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Bogotá, Colombia / Estudo de amostras de fluídos corporais utilizando citometria de fluxo: seis anos de experiencia no Hospital Universitário San Ignacio - Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colômbia

Abstract Flow cytometry (FCM) was implemented in 2008 at the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana and later at the Hospital Universitario San Ignacio to examine special samples of patients with hematological malignancies and solid tumors other than bone marrow and peripheral blood for diagnosis and monitoring. This study describes the main findings of special sample evaluation over a six-year period. In all, 1070 samples of body fluids from patients with benign and malignant diseases were examined by FCM. These samples were stabilized with TransFixTM and stained with six-color immunophenotyping panels. Samples included cerebrospinal fluid, bronchoalveolar lavage, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid and ascite fluid from patients with acute and chronic leukemia, myelodysplastic syndromes, lymphomas, myeloma, autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiencies and solid tumors, among others. Flow cytometry provided important information for the classification and detection of minimal numbers of tumor cells in leukemia and lymphoma cases. This work represents the first national report describing FCM implementation in special samples for diagnosis and clinical monitoring of patients with malignant and benign pathologies.

Resumen La citometría de flujo fue implementada en 2008 en la Pontificia Universidad Javeriana y posteriormente en el Hospital San Ignacio con el fin de examinar, para diagnóstico y monitoreo, muestras especiales de pacientes con malignidades hematológicas y tumores sólidos, distintos de los de médula ósea y sangre periférica. Este estudio describe los principales hallazgos de la evaluación de estas muestras especiales en un periodo de seis años. En total, se examinaron por citometría de flujo 1070 muestras de fluidos corporales de pacientes con enfermedades malignas y benignas. Estas muestras se estabilizaron con TransFix™ y teñidas con paneles inmunofenotípicos de seis colores. Las muestras incluyeron líquido cefalorraquídeo, lavado broncoalveolar, fluido pleural, fluido pericárdico y fluido ascítico, provenientes de pacientes con leucemia aguda y crónica, síndromes mielodisplásicos, linfomas, mieloma, enfermedades autoinmunes, inmunodeficiencias y tumores sólidos, entre otras enfermedades. La citometría de flujo proporcionó información importante sobre la clasificación y detección de números mínimos de células tumorales en casos de leucemia y linfoma. Este trabajo representa el primer reporte nacional que describe la implementación de citometría de flujo en muestras especiales para diagnóstico y monitoreo clínico de pacientes con patologías malignas y benignas.

Resumo A citometria de fluxo foi implementada em 2008 na Pontificia Universidad Javeriana e posteriormente no Hospital San Ignacio com a finalidade de examinar amostras especiais de pacientes com malignidades hematológicas e tumores sólidos diferentes aos de medula óssea e sangue periférico para diagnóstico e monitoramento. Este estudo descreve as principais descobertas a partir da avaliação de amostras especiais em um período de 6 anos. Se examinaram por citometria de fluxo um total de 1.070 amostras de fluídos corporais de pacientes doenças malignas e benignas. Estas amostras se estabilizaram com TransFix™ e coradas com painéis imunofenotípicos de seis cores. As amostras incluíram fluído cérebro-espinhal, lavado broncoalveolar, fluído pleural, fluído pericárdico e fluído ascético, provenientes de pacientes com leucemias aguda e crónica, síndromes mielodisplásicos, linfomas, mielomas, doenças autoimunes, imunodeficiência, e tumores sólidos, entre outras doenças. A citometria de fluxo proporcionou informações importantes sobre a classificação e detecção de um número mínimo de células tumorais nos casos de leucemia e linfomas. Este trabalho representa o primeiro relato nacional que descreve a implementação de citometria de fluxo em amostras especiais para diagnóstico e monitoramento clínico de pacientes com patologias malignas e benignas.

Valor pronóstico de la escala PESI y el angioTAC en pacientes con diagnóstico de TEP en el Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, años 2010-2013 / Prognosis Value of the PESI Scale and of Angiography Through Computerized Axial Tomography (angioCAT) in Patients with Diagnosis of PE (Pulmonary Embolism) in the Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, Years 2010-2013

Objetivo: Determinar el valor predictivo de la combinación de índice de severidad de tromboembolismo pulmonar (PESI), disfunción ventricular derecha (RVD) evaluada en angiografía por escanografía, dímero D, troponina I cardíaca (cTnI) y péptido natriurético tipo B BNP, comparados con su uso por separado para estratificar el riesgo en pacientes normotensos con diagnóstico de tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP). Métodos: Se seleccionaron pacientes >18 años que estuvieron hospitalizados en el Hospital Universitario San Ignacio entre 2010 y 2013 con diagnostico confirmado de TEP; mediante historias clínicas se recolectaron las variables de la escala PESI, los valores de troponina, el BNP y el dímero D, y se revisaron las imágenes de escanografía para medir la relación ventrículo derecho-ventrículo izquierdo, la morfología del tabique interventricular, el diámetro de la arteria pulmonar principal y el reflujo de la vena cava inferior. Resultados: 128 pacientes incluidos, de los cuales 7 (5,4 %) murieron. El ecocardiograma, el dímero D y la troponina se obtuvieron en 124 (96 %), y el BNP, en 101 (79 %). El PESI de alto riesgo se relacionó con todas las causas de mortalidad (p=0,049). Las combinaciones de PESI de alto riesgo con RV/LV >0,9 (p=0,04) y BNP >100 ng/ml con RV/LV >0,9 (p=0,007) fueron relacionadas de forma significativa con el desenlace primario. Otras combinaciones no mostraron relación con todas las causas de mortalidad. Conclusiones: La combinación de PESI con la relaciones RV/LV medida por escanografía de tórax mejora las características de predicción de la escanografía para detectar un desenlace combinado de muerte, hospitalización en UCI y requerimiento inotrópico

Objective: To determine the predictive value of the combination of the Severity Index of Pulmonary Embolism (PESI), Right Ventricular Dysfunction (RVD-evaluated by Computed angiography), D-dimer, troponin and BnP, compared with its separate use in order to stratify the risk in normotensive patients with a diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism (PE). Methods: Patients > the age of 18 were selected, who were hospitalized in the Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, between the years of 2010-2013, with confirmed diagnosis of PE. The PESI variables, as well as troponin, BNP, and D-dimer values were calculated through clinical histories, and the CT angiograms were reviewed in order to assess the RV/LV ratio, the morphology of interventricular septum, the diameter of right pulmonary artery and the inferior vena cava reflux. Results: 128 patients were included. 7 of these patients died (5.4%). An echocardiogram, D-dimer, and troponin were obtained in 124 patients (96%), and BNP was additionally obtained in 101 patients (79%). A high-risk PESI was associated to all-cause mortality (p=0.049). The combinations of high risk PESI with RV/LV > 0.9 (p=0.04) and BNP > 100 ng/ml with RV/LV Z 0.9 (p0.007) were significantly related with the primary conclusion. Other combinations did not show a relationship with all causes of mortality. Conclusions: The combination of PESI with RV/LV index as measured by CT chest angiogram improves the predictive capability of CT chest angiogram to detect the combined outcome of mortality, ICU admission and requiring inotropic support.

Costo-efectividad de linezolid comparado con vancomicina en el manejo de la neumonía asociada a ventilación mecánica en Colombia / Cost effectiveness of linezolid compared with vancomycin in the management of ventilator-associated pneumonia in Colombia

Objetivo: Estimar la costo-efectividad de linezolid versus vancomicina en el manejo de neumonía asociada a ventilación mecánica (NAV) causada por Staphylococcus aureus resistente a meticilina (SARM) en Colombia. Materiales y métodos: Se construyó un árbol de decisión para determinar la razón de costo-efectividad incremental de linezolid (600 mg iv/12 h) comparado con vancomicina (15 mg/kg iv/12 h) en el tratamiento de NAV por SARM. La perspectiva fue la del sistema de salud incluyendo solo costos directos. Todas las unidades monetarias se expresan en pesos colombianos del 2013 sin descuento (1 USD =$ 1.876,22). Se empleó un horizonte temporal de 30 días. Los resultados se midieron en proporción de pacientes curados. Los datos de eficacia y seguridad se tomaron de la literatura. Los costos de los procedimientos se obtuvieron del manual tarifario ISS del 2001, para medicamentos se utilizó el SISMED y la regulación de precios vigente. Se realizaron análisis de sensibilidad univariados y probabilísticos. Resultados: Los costos totales esperados por paciente curado fueron: $ 2.600.094 para linezolid y $ 1.992.753 para vancomicina. La proporción de pacientes curados fue: 53% con linezolid y 41%.con vancomicina. La razón de costo-efectividad de linezolid comparado con vancomicina fue $ 5.061.173 por paciente curado. Para cada alternativa, los resultados fueron sensibles a la probabilidad de éxito del tratamiento, a la probabilidad de presentar eventos adversos y al costo del tratamiento. Conclusión: En Colombia, linezolid sería una alternativa costo-efectiva en el tratamiento de NAV por SARM, para disponibilidades a pagar superiores a $ 5.061.173 por paciente curado.

Objective: To estimate the cost-effectiveness of linezolid versus vancomycin in the management of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Colombia. Materials and methods: We constructed a decision tree to determine the incremental cost effectiveness ratio (ICER) of linezolid (600 mg iv /12 h) compared to vancomycin (15 mg/kg iv/12 h) for the treatment of VAP caused for MRSA. The perspective is that of the Colombian health system, including only direct costs. All currency units are in Colombian pesos (COP, 2013) with no discount. (1 USD = $1,876.22). We used a time horizon of 30 days. The results were measured in the proportion of patients cured. The efficacy and safety data were taken from the literature. The costs of procedures were obtained of ISS tariff manual of 2001 and for drugs current price regulations and the SISMED database were used. Univariate and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed. Results: The total costs expected per patient cured were COP 2,600,094 for linezolid and COP 1,992,753 for vancomycin. The proportion of cured patients was 53% with linezolid and 41% with vancomycin. The ICER of linezolid compared with vancomycin was COP 5,061,173 per patient cured. For each alternative, the results were sensitive to the probability of the success of treatment, the probability of adverse events and the cost of treatment. Conclusion: Linezolid would be a cost-effective alternative in the treatment of VAP for MRSA in Colombia for willingness to pay above COP 5,061,173 per patient cured.

Costo-efectividad del tratamiento con interferón beta en pacientes con síndrome clínico aislado de alto riesgo en Colombia / The cost-effectiveness of interferon beta treatment in patients with a clinically isolated syndrome in Colombia

Introducción. En 85 % de los pacientes con esclerosis múltiple se presenta como manifestación inicial un primer evento desmielinizante o síndrome clínico aislado. En estos casos, el tratamiento con interferón beta retrasa hasta dos años la progresión a esclerosis múltiple. Sin embargo, en Colombia este medicamento es costoso. Objetivo. Determinar si el tratamiento del síndrome clínico aislado con interferón beta es costo-efectivo al retrasar la esclerosis múltiple en dos años. Materiales y métodos. Se realizó un análisis de costo-efectividad empleando un árbol de decisiones basado en la perspectiva del paciente y la sociedad. A partir de una revisión sistemática de la literatura y de conceptos de expertos se definieron las diversas probabilidades. Los costos de la enfermedad se calcularon por medio de la revisión de historias y la aplicación de encuestas a los pacientes atendidos en el Hospital Universitario San Ignacio. Para controlar la incertidumbre se realizó un análisis de sensibilidad mediante una simulación de Monte Carlo con mil pacientes. Resultados. El costo del tratamiento con interferón sobrepasa los Col$ 95´000.000 (US$ 50.000) por paciente durante los dos años. Aproximadamente, 80 % corresponde a los costos del medicamento. El costo de la recaída se acerca a Col$ 39´139.200 (US$ 21.744), y los costos indirectos corresponden a Col$ 10´958.400 (US$ 6.088). La tasa representativa del mercado fue de Col$ 1.800. Con el tratamiento se ganan sólo 0,06 años de vida ajustados por discapacidad (AVAD) adicionales. La razón de costo-efectividad ‘incremental´ (sic.) supera el umbral, incluso en el análisis de sensibilidad. Conclusión. La administración de interferón beta en pacientes con síndrome clínico aislado de alto riesgo en los primeros dos años no es costo-efectiva en Colombia.

Introduction: Approximately 85% of patients with multiple sclerosis have an initial demyelinating event. Treatment with interferon beta delays the progression of multiple sclerosis for nearly two years in patients with a clinically isolated syndrome. In Colombia, interferon is very expensive when compared to other countries. Objective: We sought to determine the cost-effectiveness of a two-year interferon beta treatment within Colombia in patients with a clinically isolated syndrome. Materials and methods: Based on patient and society perspectives, a cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted using a decision tree. A variety of probabilities were defined after a systematic review of the available literature. The disease costs were calculated by reviewing medical charts at the Hospital San Ignacio University and surveys completed by multiple sclerosis patients. To control for uncertainty in these data, analysis of approximately one-thousand patients was performed using Monte Carlo methods. Results: The two-year treatment cost per patient exceeds Col$ 95,000,000 (US$ 50,000). Approximately 80 % of this cost corresponds to medications (US$ 40,500). The price of relapse and indirect costs totals Col$ 41,632,149 (US$ 21,744) and Col$ 11,656,389 (US$ 6,088), respectively. Treatment represents an increase of 0.06 quality-adjusted life years (QALY). The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio exceeds the threshold, regardless of the use of Monte Carlo methods for analysis. Conclusion: Administering interferon beta over the course of two years to high-risk patients with a clinically isolated syndrome is not cost-effective within Colombia.