Novel signals and polygenic score for height are associated with pubertal growth traits in Southwestern American Indians.

Most genetic variants associated with adult height have been identified through large genome-wide association studies (GWASs) in European-ancestry cohorts. However, it is unclear how these variants influence linear growth during adolescence. This study uses anthropometric and genotypic data from a longitudinal study conducted in an American Indian community in Arizona between 1965-2007. Growth parameters (i.e. height, velocity, and timing of growth spurt) were derived from the Preece-Baines growth model, a parametric growth curve fitted to longitudinal height data, in 787 participants with height measurements spanning the whole period of growth. Heritability estimates suggested that genetic factors could explain 25% to 71% of the variance of pubertal growth traits. We performed a GWAS of growth parameters, testing their associations with 5 077 595 imputed or directly genotyped variants. Six variants associated with height at peak velocity (P < 5 × 10-8, adjusted for sex, birth year and principal components). Implicated genes include NUDT3, previously associated with adult height, and PACSIN1. Two novel variants associated with duration of growth spurt (P < 5 × 10-8) in LOC105375344, an uncharacterized gene with unknown function. We finally examined the association of growth parameters with a polygenic score for height derived from 9557 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) identified in the GIANT meta-analysis for which genotypic data were available for the American Indian study population. Height polygenic score was correlated with the magnitude and velocity of height growth that occurred before and at the peak of the adolescent growth spurt, indicating overlapping genetic architecture, with no influence on the timing of adolescent growth.

Adolescent Growth Spurt and Type 2 Diabetes Risk in Southwestern American Indians.

Early puberty onset is associated with higher risk of diabetes, but most studies have not accounted for childhood factors that may confound the association. Using data from a study conducted in an Indigenous community in Arizona (1965-2007), we examined associations of timing and velocity of the adolescent growth spurt with type 2 diabetes, and whether these associations are mediated by childhood body mass index and insulinemia. Adolescent growth parameters were derived from the Preece-Baines growth model, a parametric growth curve fitted to longitudinal height data, for 861 participants with height measurements spanning the whole period of growth. In males, older age at take-off, age at peak velocity, and age at maturation were associated with decreased prevalence of diabetes (odds ratio (OR) = 0.43 per year, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.27, 0.69; OR = 0.50, 95% CI: 0.35, 0.72; OR = 0.58, 95% CI: 0.41, 0.83, respectively), while higher velocity at take-off was associated with increased risk (OR = 3.47 per cm/year, 95% CI: 1.87, 6.42) adjusting for age, birth year, and maternal diabetes. Similar results were observed with incident diabetes. Our findings suggest that an early and accelerated adolescent growth spurt is a risk factor for diabetes, at least in males. These associations are only partially explained by measures of adiposity and insulinemia.

Patient and Provider Views on Psychosocial Screening in a Comprehensive Diabetes Center.

Guidelines recommend routinely screening adults with diabetes for psychological concerns, but few diabetes clinics have adopted screening procedures. This study assessed patient and provider perspectives regarding the role of mental health in diabetes care, psychosocial screening procedures, and patients' support needs. Patients with diabetes (n = 15; 73.3% type 2) and their medical providers (n = 11) participated in qualitative interviews. Thematic content analysis was used to categorize results. Participants believed that mental health was important to address within comprehensive diabetes care. Patients expressed positive or neutral opinions about psychosocial screening. Providers had mixed reactions; many thought that screening would be too time-consuming. Both groups emphasized that screening must include referral procedures to direct patients to mental health services. Patients and providers interviewed in this study viewed psychosocial screening as compatible with diabetes care. Including a mental health professional on the treatment team could reduce potential burden on other team members.

Increased Adiposity and Low Height-for-Age in Early Childhood Are Associated With Later Metabolic Risks in American Indian Children and Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Growth abnormalities in childhood have been related to later cardiometabolic risks, but little is known about these associations in populations at high risk of type 2 diabetes. OBJECTIVES: We examined the associations of patterns of growth, including weight and height at ages 1-59 months, with cardiometabolic risk factors at ages 5-16 years. METHODS: We linked anthropometric data collected at ages 1-59 months to cardiometabolic data obtained from a longitudinal study in a southwestern American Indian population at high risk of diabetes. Analyses included 701 children with ≥1 follow-up examination at ages 5-16 years. We derived age- and sex-specific weight-for-height z-scores (WHZ) and height-for-age z-scores (HAZ) at ages 1-59 months. We selected the highest observed WHZ and the lowest observed HAZ at ages 1-59 months and analyzed associations of z-scores and categories of WHZ and HAZ with cardiometabolic outcomes at ages 5-16 years. We used linear mixed-effects models to account for repeated measures. RESULTS: Overweight/obesity (WHZ >2) at ages 1-59 months was significantly associated with increased BMI, fasting and 2-hour postload plasma glucose, fasting and 2-hour insulin, triglycerides, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and decreased HDL cholesterol at ages 5-16 years relative to normal weight (WHZ ≤1). For example, at ages 5-9 years, 2-hour glucose was 10.4 mg/dL higher (95% CI: 5.6-15.3 mg/dL) and fasting insulin was 4.29 µU/mL higher (95% CI: 2.96-5.71 µU/mL) in those with overweight/obesity in early childhood. Associations were attenuated and no longer significant when adjusted for concurrent BMI. A low height-for-age (HAZ < -2) at ages 1-59 months was associated with 5.37 mg/dL lower HDL (95% CI: 2.57-8.17 mg/dL) and 27.5 µU/mL higher 2-hour insulin (95% CI: 3.41-57.6 µU/mL) at ages 10-16 years relative to an HAZ ≥0. CONCLUSIONS: In this American Indian population, findings suggest a strong contribution of overweight/obesity in early childhood to cardiometabolic risks in later childhood and adolescence, mediated through persistent overweight/obesity into later ages. Findings also suggest potential adverse effects of low height-for-age, which require confirmation.

Early-Life Nutrition and Subsequent International Migration: A Prospective Study in Rural Guatemala.

BACKGROUND: It is generally accepted that migrants are favorably self-selected for labor market skills such as higher schooling and greater cognitive capacity, which are highly correlated with early-life nutrition. However, the influence of early-life nutrition on later-life migration is understudied. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine prospectively the association between height-for-age z scores (HAZ) at 24 mo and subsequent international migration in a cohort of 2392 participants born between 1962 and 1977 in 4 rural villages in eastern Guatemala. METHODS: Information on nutritional status and covariates was collected between 1969 and 1977 and migration status was determined as of 2017 (at ages 40-57 y). We used proportional hazards and logistic regression models to assess whether HAZ was associated with international migration, adjusting for early-life and adult characteristics. RESULTS: Between 1978 and 2017 there were 297 international migrants (12.4% of the original cohort) during 99,212 person-y of follow-up. In pooled models that were adjusted for early-life characteristics, a 1-SD increase in HAZ was associated with a 19% increase in the risk of international migration (HR: 1.19; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.38). Further adjustment for village characteristics did not alter the estimate substantively (HR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.02, 1.37), while additional adjustment for schooling attainment attenuated the estimate somewhat (HR: 1.14; 95% CI: 0.98, 1.33). In all models, effect sizes were stronger for men than for women. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that early-life nutrition is positively associated with subsequent international migration.

Linear Growth Trajectories in Early Childhood and Adult Cognitive and Socioemotional Functioning in a Guatemalan Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Growth faltering in early childhood is associated with poor human capital attainment, but associations of linear growth in childhood with executive and socioemotional functioning in adulthood are understudied. OBJECTIVES: In a Guatemalan cohort, we identified distinct trajectories of linear growth in early childhood, assessed their predictors, and examined associations between growth trajectories and neurodevelopmental outcomes in adulthood. We also assessed the mediating role of schooling on the association of growth trajectories with adult cognitive outcomes. METHODS: In 2017-2019, we prospectively followed 1499 Guatemalan adults who participated in a food supplementation trial in early childhood (1969-1977). We derived height-for-age sex-specific growth trajectories from birth to 84 mo using latent class growth analysis. RESULTS: We identified 3 growth trajectories (low, intermediate, high) with parallel slopes and intercepts already differentiated at birth in both sexes. Children of taller mothers were more likely to belong to the high and intermediate trajectories [relative risk ratio (RRR): 1.21; 95% CI: 1.15, 1.26, and RRR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.07, 1.15, per 1-cm increase in height, respectively] compared with the low trajectory. Children in the wealthiest compared with the poorest socioeconomic tertile were more likely to belong to the high trajectory compared with the low trajectory (RRR: 2.24; 95% CI: 1.29, 3.88). In males, membership in the high compared with low trajectory was positively associated with nonverbal fluid intelligence, working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility at ages 40-57 y. Sex-adjusted results showed that membership in the high compared with low trajectory was positively associated with meaning and purpose scores at ages 40-57 y. Associations of intermediate compared with low growth trajectories with study outcomes were also positive but of lesser magnitude. Schooling partially mediated the associations between high and intermediate growth trajectories and measures of cognitive ability in adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: Modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors predicted growth throughout childhood. Membership in the high and intermediate growth trajectories was positively associated with adult cognitive and socioemotional functioning.

Malnutrition inequalities in Ecuador: differences by wealth, education level and ethnicity.

OBJECTIVE: To describe and quantify the magnitude and distribution of stunting, wasting, anaemia, overweight and obesity by wealth, level of education and ethnicity in Ecuador. DESIGN: We used nationally representative data from the 2012 Ecuadorian National Health and Nutrition Survey. We used the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) as a proxy of wealth. The MPI identifies deprivations across three dimensions (health, education and standard of living). We defined education by years of schooling and ethnicity as a social construct, based on shared social, cultural and historical experiences, using Ecuadorian census categories. SETTING: Urban and rural Ecuador, including the Amazon rainforest and the Galapagos Islands. PARTICIPANTS: Children aged <5 years (n 8580), adolescent women aged 11-19 years (n 4043) and adult women aged 20-49 years (n 15 203). RESULTS: Among children <5 years, stunting and anaemia disproportionately affected low-wealth, low-education and indigenous groups. Among adolescent and adult women, higher rates of stunting, overweight and obesity were observed in the low-education and low-wealth groups. Stunting and short stature rates were higher in indigenous women, whereas overweight and obesity rates were higher in Afro-Ecuadorian women. CONCLUSIONS: Malnutrition differs significantly across sociodemographic groups, disproportionately affecting those in the low wealth tertile and ethnic minorities. Rates of stunting remain high compared with other countries in the region with similar economic development. The effective implementation of double-duty actions with the potential to impact both sides of the double burden is urgently required.

A Food Transfer Program without a Formal Education Component Modifies Complementary Feeding Practices in Poor Rural Mexican Communities.

BACKGROUND: Inadequate complementary feeding partially explains micronutrient deficiencies in the first 2 y of life. To prevent malnutrition, the Mexican government implemented the Programa de Apoyo Alimentario (PAL), which transferred either food baskets containing micronutrient-fortified milk and animal food products or cash to beneficiary families along with educational sessions. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated the impact of PAL on 2 indicators of complementary feeding: minimum dietary diversity and consumption of iron-rich or iron-fortified foods in children aged 6-23 mo. METHODS: A secondary analysis of the original PAL evaluation design was conducted through a randomized community trial implemented with 3 intervention groups (food basket with education, food basket without education, and cash transfer with education) and a control. The impact of PAL after 14 mo of exposure was estimated in 2 cross-sectional groups of children aged 6-23 mo at baseline and at follow-up in a panel of 145 communities by using difference-in-difference models. Only children who lived in households and communities that were similar between treatment groups at baseline were included in the analysis. These children were identified by using a propensity score. RESULTS: Of the 3 intervention groups, when compared with the control, only the food basket without education group component increased the consumption of iron-rich or iron-fortified foods by 31.2 percentage points (PP) (P < 0.01) and the prevalence of minimum dietary diversity by 21.6 PP (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that in order to improve dietary quality in children, food baskets that include fortified complementary foods may be more effective than cash transfers. The fact that the 2 food basket groups differed in the observed impact does not allow for more convincing conclusions to be made about the education component of the program. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01304888.

Comparison of Glycemic Control Between In-Person and Virtual Diabetes Consults in Hospitalized Patients With Diabetes.

BACKGROUND: There is limited evidence that the diabetes in-person consult in hospitalized patients can be replaced by a virtual consult. During COVID-19 pandemic, the diabetes in-person consult service at the University of Miami and Miami Veterans Affairs Healthcare System transitioned to a virtual model. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of telemedicine on glycemic control after this transition. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed glucose metrics from in-person consults (In-person) during January 16 to March 14, 2020 and virtual consults during March 15 to May 14, 2020. Data from virtual consults were analyzed by separating patients infected with COVID-19, who were seen only virtually (Virtual-COVID-19-Pos), and patients who were not infected (Virtual-COVID-19-Neg), or by combining the two groups (Virtual-All). RESULTS: Patient-day-weighted blood glucose was not significantly different between In-person, Virtual-All, and Virtual-COVID-19-Neg, but Virtual-COVID-19-Pos had significantly higher mean ± SD blood glucose (mg/dL) compared with others (206.7 ± 49.6 In-person, 214.6 ± 56.2 Virtual-All, 206.5 ± 57.2 Virtual-COVID-19-Neg, 229.7 ± 51.6 Virtual-COVID-19-Pos; P = .015). A significantly less percentage of patients in this group also achieved a mean ± SD glucose target of 140 to 180 mg/dL (23.8 ± 22.5 In-person, 21.5 ± 20.5 Virtual-All, 25.3 ± 20.8 Virtual-COVID-19-Neg, and 14.4±18.1 Virtual-COVID-19-Pos, P = .024), but there was no significant difference between In-person, Virtual-All, and Virtual-COVID-19-Neg. The occurrence of hypoglycemia was not significantly different among groups. CONCLUSIONS: In-person and virtual consults delivered by a diabetes team at an academic institution were not associated with significant differences in glycemic control. These real-world data suggest that telemedicine could be used for in-patient diabetes management, although additional studies are needed to better assess clinical outcomes and safety.

Complexity of antidiabetic medication regimen is associated with increased diabetes-related distress in persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

INTRODUCTION: Diabetes-related distress is present in a high proportion of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. We hypothesized that complexity of the antidiabetic medication regimen is a factor that is associated with diabetes-related distress. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This was a retrospective study including a group of 74 patients managed at a tertiary care center. Patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, steroid-induced diabetes, post-transplant diabetes, and other types of diabetes were excluded. Patients were screened using the Diabetes Distress Scale-2 (DDS-2). A Diabetes Medication Complexity Scoring (DMCS) system was developed to objectively assess the diabetes medication complexity. Based on DMCS, participants were categorized into three groups: low (n=26), moderate (n=22), and high (n=26) medication complexity. RESULTS: Complexity groups were similar in sociodemographic characteristics, diabetes duration, body mass index, and blood pressure as well as the prevalence of hypertension, hyperlipidemia and hypoglycemic episodes. However, there were significant differences for HbA1c with higher HbA1c in the high and moderate complexity groups than in the low group (p=0.006). The microvascular complications were also more common in higher complexity groups (p=0.003). The prevalence of diabetes-related distress (DDS-2 ≥6) was 34.6% in the low, 36.4% in the moderate and 69.2% in the high complexity groups (p=0.021). There were significant differences in DDS-2 score among complexity groups (p=0.009), with higher DDS-2 score in the high complexity group compared with the moderate (p=0.008) and low complexity groups (p=0.009). The difference in DDS-2 score remained significant after adjusting for HbA1c (p=0.024) but did not reach statistical significance after controlling for both HbA1c and microvascular complications (p=0.163). CONCLUSIONS: A complex antidiabetic medication regimen may be associated with high levels of diabetes-related distress.

Cognitive and socio-emotional correlates of psychological well-being and mental health in Guatemalan adults.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about associations of psychological and mental well-being with cognitive and socioemotional factors in low and middle-income countries, particularly among vulnerable populations born in adverse environments that may restrict developmental potential. This study aimed to examine the cognitive and socioemotional correlates of psychological well-being and mental health in a cohort of Guatemalan adults born in contexts of poverty and malnutrition. METHODS: From Dec 2017 to Apr 2019, data were collected from 704 women and 564 men ages 40-57 years living in four rural villages in eastern Guatemala and Guatemala City. We measured latent domains of psychological well-being, spirituality and religion, emotional support, and executive function using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Under a Structural Equation Modeling framework, we examined intercorrelations among latent domains and observed measures of intelligence and mental health. RESULTS: CFA supported the construct validity of factor structures in this population. Correlations of psychological well-being with spirituality and religion were moderate in women (r = 0.68, p < 0.001) and men (r = 0.70, p < 0.001). Executive function was weakly correlated with psychological well-being in men (r = 0.23, p < 0.001) and showed no association in women. Correlations of psychological well-being with emotional support and IQ were weak in women (r = 0.34, and r = 0.15, respectively; p < 0.001 for both) and men (r = 0.35, and r = 0.25, respectively; p < 0.001 for both). Mental health and IQ were weakly correlated in men (r = 0.09, p < 0.05) and showed no association in women. Mental health showed weak correlations with emotional support (r = 0.18, p < 0.001 in women; r = 0.09, p < 0.05 in men), psychological well-being (r = 0.32 and r = 0.35, in women and men respectively; p < 0.001 for both) and showed no association with executive function in both sexes. CONCLUSIONS: Of all examined factors, spirituality and religion made the greatest contribution to psychological well-being. These findings support the notion that in populations experiencing difficult circumstances, religion can perhaps make a greater contribution to well-being and aid coping. More research is needed to examine mediators of this association.

Influence of enhanced nutrition and psychosocial stimulation in early childhood on cognitive functioning and psychological well-being in Guatemalan adults.

RATIONALE: Early-life nutrition interventions in low and middle-income countries have demonstrated long-term benefits on cognitive skills, however, their influence on socioemotional outcomes has not been fully explored. Moreover, the mediating processes through which nutrition intervention effects operate and are maintained over time are understudied. METHODS: We followed-up a cohort of Guatemalan adults who participated as children in a community randomized food-supplementation trial. We examined associations of exposure to nutritional supplementation from conception to age 2 years with executive function (measured using three sub-tests of the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery) and psychological well-being (measured using two sub-scales of the NIH Toolbox Emotion Battery) at ages 40-57 years (n = 1268). We used structural equation modeling to investigate the mediating role of psychosocial stimulation (measured in childhood using parent reports and ratings of home environments), cognitive ability (measured at ages 26-42 years using standardized tests), and executive function on the association of early-life exposure to nutritional supplementation with adult psychological well-being (n = 1640). RESULTS: We found positive but inconsistent associations of nutritional supplementation in childhood with executive function and psychological well-being in adulthood. Psychosocial stimulation, cognitive ability, and executive function did not mediate the association of early-life nutritional supplementation with adult psychological well-being. We found strong and positive associations of psychosocial stimulation in childhood with cognitive ability, executive function, and psychological well-being in adulthood. Moreover, we observed no interaction of exposure to nutritional supplementation and psychosocial stimulation in childhood with cognitive and psychological well-being outcomes in adulthood. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that childhood nutrition interventions have long-lasting effects on cognitive ability and psychological well-being outcomes.

Effects of increased hemoglobin on child growth, development, and disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

In children under 5, a hemoglobin (Hb) cutoff of 11 g/dL is recommended by the World Health Organization to define anemia, yet few studies have examined whether this cut point accurately coincides with negative functional consequences. This systematic review and meta-analysis of iron intervention and observational studies aimed to clarify the consequences of low Hb concentration in children under age 5 years on growth, development, and chronic disease (functional outcomes) across the full range of Hb values. A literature search returned 5049 studies; of these, 56 intervention and 20 observational studies fit the inclusion criteria. Among iron supplementation trials, a metaregression indicated significant associations between intervention effects on Hb and their effects on motor and mental development. For each 1 standard deviation (SD) increase in Hb, motor scores increased by 0.28 SD and mental scores increased by 0.24 SD. Iron supplementation trials among children with lower Hb concentrations at baseline showed stronger associations between their effects on Hb and their effects on mental development (P-interaction = 0.008). Heterogeneity among observational studies precluded calculation of pooled associations between Hb and functional outcomes. Available evidence was not able to establish an inflection point at which decreasing Hb begins to be associated with negative functional outcomes. Future research is needed to examine associations of Hb with growth and development in populations with varying levels of Hb, inflammation, and in different ages and settings.

Impact of Double-Fortified Salt with Iron and Iodine on Hemoglobin, Anemia, and Iron Deficiency Anemia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Double-fortified salt (DFS) containing iron and iodine has been proposed as a feasible and cost-effective alternative for iron fortification in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis from randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials to 1) assess the effect of DFS on biomarkers of iron status and the risk of anemia and iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and 2) evaluate differential effects of DFS by study type (efficacy or effectiveness), population subgroups, iron formulation (ferrous sulfate, ferrous fumarate, and ferric pyrophosphate), iron concentration, duration of intervention, and study quality. A systematic search with the use of MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane, Web of Science, and other sources identified 221 articles. Twelve efficacy and 2 effectiveness studies met prespecified inclusion criteria. All studies were conducted in LMICs: 10 in India, 2 in Morocco, and 1 each in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana. In efficacy studies, DFS increased hemoglobin concentrations [standardized mean difference (SMD): 0.28; 95% CI: 0.11, 0.44; P < 0.001] and reduced the risk of anemia (RR: 0.59; 95% CI: 0.46, 0.77; P < 0.001) and IDA (RR 0.37; 95% CI: 0.25, 0.54; P < 0.001). In effectiveness studies, the effect size for hemoglobin was smaller but significant (SMD: 0.03; 95% CI: 0.01, 0.05; P < 0.01). Stratified analyses of efficacy studies by population subgroups indicated positive effects of DFS among women and school-age children. For the latter, DFS increased hemoglobin concentrations (SMD: 0.32; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.60; P < 0.05) and reduced the risk of anemia (SMD: 0.48; 95% CI: 0.34, 0.67; P < 0.001) and IDA (SMD: 0.37; 95% CI: 0.25, 0.54; P < 0.001). Hemoglobin concentrations, anemia prevalence and deworming at baseline, sample size, and study duration were not associated with effect sizes. The results indicate that DFS is efficacious in increasing hemoglobin concentrations and reducing the risk of anemia and IDA in LMIC populations. More effectiveness studies are needed.

[Processes of expansion and limits to privatization of healthcare in Latin America: beyond typologies]. / Procesos de expansión y límites a la privatización de la atención de la salud en América Latina: más allá de las tipologías.

The aim was to conduct a literature review on health systems and comparative studies of health policies and systems to identify the leading contributions to the analysis of privatization, especially the role of health maintenance organizations and health insurance companies in national health systems in Latin America. The review focused on analyzing the adequacy of theoretical and methodological perspectives or proposals and their indicators to measure the private health sector's participation and interaction with national health systems. We thus seek to problematize the adequacy, limits, and potentialities of such perspectives for investigating the privatization processes in Latin American health systems. The comparative analysis of some specific elements such as health expenditures, installed capacity, and population covered by health plans and health insurance allowed us to identify contradictions in the systems regarding public-private relations, as well as to question the use of traditional classifications for defining various health systems in the region. Our challenge was to break with linear, non-contradictory explanations for analyzing health systems. This perspective requires questioning categories and typologies that have been developed and used repeatedly in order to discuss and rethink to move forward with a more rigorous understanding of our realities, as well as to encourage new debates and explanations.

Resumen: El objetivo fue realizar una revisión bibliográfica sobre los sistemas de salud y estudios comparados en políticas y sistemas de salud para identificar los principales aportes de los mismos en el análisis de la privatización, especialmente, el papel de las organizaciones que comercializan planes y seguros de salud en los sistemas nacionales de salud en países de América Latina. La revisión se centró en analizar la adecuación de perspectivas o propuestas teórico-metodológicas y de sus indicadores para dimensionar la participación del sector privado, y su interacción con los sistemas nacionales de salud. De este modo, buscamos problematizar la adecuación, los límites y las potencialidades de los mismos, en el estudio de los procesos de privatización en los sistemas de salud de países de América Latina. El análisis comparado de algunos elementos específicos, como el análisis de gastos, la capacidad instalada, la población cubierta con planes y seguros privados en los sistema de salud, nos permitió identificar matices, contradicciones existentes en los sistemas, respecto a la relación público-privada, así como cuestionarnos el uso de clasificaciones tradicionales con las que se definieron diversos sistemas de salud en nuestra región. Nuestro desafío fue romper con algunas explicaciones lineales o ausentes de contradicciones sobre los análisis de los sistemas de salud. Desde esa perspectiva, es necesario cuestionar categorías o tipologías que se han desarrollado y utilizado de manera recurrente, con el fin de que se discutan y repiensen para poder avanzar en una comprensión más rigurosa de nuestras realidades, así como estimular nuevos debates y explicaciones.

Resumo: O estudo teve como objetivo fazer uma revisão bibliográfica sobre os sistemas de saúde e estudos comparados em políticas e sistemas de saúde para identificar os principais aportes dos mesmos na análise da privatização, especialmente, no papel das organizações que comercializam planos e seguros de saúde nos sistemas nacionais de saúde em países da América Latina. A revisão foi focada em analisar a adequação das perspectivas ou propostas teórico-metodológicas de seus indicadores para dimensionar a participação do sector privado da saúde, e sua interação com os sistemas nacionais de saúde. Deste modo, procuramos problematizar a adequação, os limites e as potencialidades dos mesmos, estudando os processos de privatização nos sistemas de saúde de países da América Latina. As análises comparadas de alguns elementos específicos, como as análises de custos em saúde, a capacidade instalada, a população coberta com planos e seguros de saúde, nos permitiu identificar as vinculações e contradições existentes nos sistemas, ao respeito das relações com o sistema público-privado, além de questionarmos o uso das classificações tradicionais com as quais foram definidos os diferentes sistemas de saúde em nossa região. Nosso desafio foi romper com algumas explicações lineares o carentes de contradições sobre as análises dos sistemas de saúde. Desde essa perspectiva, é necessário questionar as categorias ou tipologias que foram desenvolvidas e usadas de forma recorrente, com o fim de discuti-las e repensa-las a fim de avançar numa compreensão mais rigorosa das nossas realidades, assim como estimular novos debates e explicações sobre esta questão.

[Complaints by private health insurance policy-holders to the Consumer Protection Bureau in Argentina, 2000-2008]. / Las denuncias de los afiliados de las empresas de medicina prepaga presentadas ante la Subsecretaría de Defensa del Consumidor en Argentina, 2000-2008.

This paper analyzes problems experienced by policy-holders of voluntary private health insurance plans in Argentina when insurance companies fail to comply with the Consumer Protection Code. The sample consisted of consumer complaints filed with the Consumer Protection Bureau and rulings by the Bureau from 2000 to 2008. One striking issue was recurrent non-compliance with services included in the Mandatory Medical Program and the companies' attempts to blame policy-holders. According to the study, the lack of an information system hinders scientific studies to adequately address the problem. Thus, a comparison with studies on health insurance in other Latin American countries highlighted the importance of such research, the relationship to health systems, constraints on use and denial of citizens' rights to healthcare, and the increasing judicialization of healthcare provision.

The double burden of undernutrition and excess body weight in Ecuador.

BACKGROUND: Ecuador's current nutrition policies have not taken adequate notice of the double burden of malnutrition and continue to focus on stunting and to a lesser extent on overweight, without addressing the simultaneous presence of undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and overweight or obesity (OW/OB). OBJECTIVE: The aim of this article was to describe the prevalence and distribution of undernutrition (stunting, anemia, and zinc deficiency), overweight, and obesity in Ecuador to explore the evolving double burden of malnutrition at the national, household, and individual levels and to discuss whether current public health policies are addressing the double burden. DESIGN: Data from the 2012 Ecuadorian National Health and Nutrition Survey (ENSANUT-ECU) was used to estimate the dual burden of malnutrition at the national, household, and individual levels in children <5 y old, school-aged children, and women of reproductive age. RESULTS: In 13.1% of households, mothers with excess body weight coexist with a stunted child <5 y old. Moreover, among households with overweight or obese mothers, 12.6% have an anemic child and 14% have a zinc-deficient child. At the individual levels, the coexistence of OW/OB and stunting, anemia, or zinc deficiency was found in 2.8%, 0.7%, and 8.4% of school-aged children, respectively. In addition, 8.9% and 32.6% of women aged 12-49 y have excess body weight and anemia or zinc deficiency, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This article shows the coexistence of high rates of undernutrition and OW/OB at the individual, household, and national levels in Ecuador. Although integrated approaches to address the emerging double burden are required, public health policies to date have not responded adequately.

Procesos de expansión y límites a la privatización de la atención de la salud en América Latina: más allá de las tipologías / Processes of expansion and limits to privatization of healthcare in Latin America: beyond typologies / Processos de expansão e limites a privatização da atenção à saúde na América Latina: além das tipologias

Resumen: El objetivo fue realizar una revisión bibliográfica sobre los sistemas de salud y estudios comparados en políticas y sistemas de salud para identificar los principales aportes de los mismos en el análisis de la privatización, especialmente, el papel de las organizaciones que comercializan planes y seguros de salud en los sistemas nacionales de salud en países de América Latina. La revisión se centró en analizar la adecuación de perspectivas o propuestas teórico-metodológicas y de sus indicadores para dimensionar la participación del sector privado, y su interacción con los sistemas nacionales de salud. De este modo, buscamos problematizar la adecuación, los límites y las potencialidades de los mismos, en el estudio de los procesos de privatización en los sistemas de salud de países de América Latina. El análisis comparado de algunos elementos específicos, como el análisis de gastos, la capacidad instalada, la población cubierta con planes y seguros privados en los sistema de salud, nos permitió identificar matices, contradicciones existentes en los sistemas, respecto a la relación público-privada, así como cuestionarnos el uso de clasificaciones tradicionales con las que se definieron diversos sistemas de salud en nuestra región. Nuestro desafío fue romper con algunas explicaciones lineales o ausentes de contradicciones sobre los análisis de los sistemas de salud. Desde esa perspectiva, es necesario cuestionar categorías o tipologías que se han desarrollado y utilizado de manera recurrente, con el fin de que se discutan y repiensen para poder avanzar en una comprensión más rigurosa de nuestras realidades, así como estimular nuevos debates y explicaciones.

Abstract: The aim was to conduct a literature review on health systems and comparative studies of health policies and systems to identify the leading contributions to the analysis of privatization, especially the role of health maintenance organizations and health insurance companies in national health systems in Latin America. The review focused on analyzing the adequacy of theoretical and methodological perspectives or proposals and their indicators to measure the private health sector's participation and interaction with national health systems. We thus seek to problematize the adequacy, limits, and potentialities of such perspectives for investigating the privatization processes in Latin American health systems. The comparative analysis of some specific elements such as health expenditures, installed capacity, and population covered by health plans and health insurance allowed us to identify contradictions in the systems regarding public-private relations, as well as to question the use of traditional classifications for defining various health systems in the region. Our challenge was to break with linear, non-contradictory explanations for analyzing health systems. This perspective requires questioning categories and typologies that have been developed and used repeatedly in order to discuss and rethink to move forward with a more rigorous understanding of our realities, as well as to encourage new debates and explanations.

Resumo: O estudo teve como objetivo fazer uma revisão bibliográfica sobre os sistemas de saúde e estudos comparados em políticas e sistemas de saúde para identificar os principais aportes dos mesmos na análise da privatização, especialmente, no papel das organizações que comercializam planos e seguros de saúde nos sistemas nacionais de saúde em países da América Latina. A revisão foi focada em analisar a adequação das perspectivas ou propostas teórico-metodológicas de seus indicadores para dimensionar a participação do sector privado da saúde, e sua interação com os sistemas nacionais de saúde. Deste modo, procuramos problematizar a adequação, os limites e as potencialidades dos mesmos, estudando os processos de privatização nos sistemas de saúde de países da América Latina. As análises comparadas de alguns elementos específicos, como as análises de custos em saúde, a capacidade instalada, a população coberta com planos e seguros de saúde, nos permitiu identificar as vinculações e contradições existentes nos sistemas, ao respeito das relações com o sistema público-privado, além de questionarmos o uso das classificações tradicionais com as quais foram definidos os diferentes sistemas de saúde em nossa região. Nosso desafio foi romper com algumas explicações lineares o carentes de contradições sobre as análises dos sistemas de saúde. Desde essa perspectiva, é necessário questionar as categorias ou tipologias que foram desenvolvidas e usadas de forma recorrente, com o fim de discuti-las e repensa-las a fim de avançar numa compreensão mais rigorosa das nossas realidades, assim como estimular novos debates e explicações sobre esta questão.

Aportes de los estudios comparativos para la comprensión de las políticas y sistemas de salud en países de América Latina / Contribuições dos estudos comparativos para a compreensão das políticas e sistemas de saúde na América Latina

Resumen Introducción el objetivo del trabajo es realizar un mapeo en los estudios comparados para identificar las fortalezas y alcances que los mismos tienen en relación a su capacidad para explicar los factores que condicionaron/estimularon los procesos de reforma orientados por la lógica de mercado y de privatización en diversos países y aquellos factores que limitaron o contribuyeron a revertir dicho proceso. Métodos revisión bibliográfica. Resultados existe una extensa literatura que ha estudiado los procesos de reforma de salud desde una perspectiva comparada, en los cuales se destaca el peso de las instituciones, los procesos de toma de decisiones, los actores involucrados como las coyunturas críticas. La producción de estudios comparativos tanto de políticas y sistemas de salud de países europeos entre sí y de los mismos con las políticas y sistemas de salud de Canadá y Estados Unidos, ha permitido el desarrollo de debates y reformulaciones teóricas relevantes en términos de hallazgos así como de propuestas teóricas y políticas. En la producción académica de los países de la región no se observa el mismo nivel de desarrollo. Conclusión avanzar en esta línea de trabajos resulta fundamental para una mejor comprensión de los procesos actuales como para pensar en alternativas de cambio posibles.

Resumo Introdução o estudo teve como objetivo realizar um mapeamento nos estudos comparativos para identificar os pontos fortes e o escopo que eles têm em relação à sua capacidade para explicar os fatores que condicionaram/estimularam o processo de reforma guiado pela lógica do mercado e a privatização em vários países como aqueles fatores que contribuíram para limitar ou reverter o processo. Métodos revisão bibliográfica. Resultados Existe uma extensa literatura que tem estudado os processos de reforma da saúde em uma perspectiva comparada, que salienta o peso das instituições, processos de tomada de decisão e os grupos interessados, como as conjunturas críticas. A produção de estudos comparativos das políticas e sistemas de saúde em países europeus, e deles com as políticas e sistemas de saúde do Canadá e dos Estados Unidos tem permitido o desenvolvimento de discussões e reformulações teóricas relevantes em termos de resultados e de propostas teóricas e políticas. Na produção acadêmica dos países da região não se observa o mesmo nível de desenvolvimento. Conclusão o progresso nessa área de trabalho é essencial para uma melhor compreensão dos processos atuais como para pensar sobre possíveis alternativas de mudança.

Las denuncias de los afiliados de las empresas de medicina prepaga presentadas ante la Subsecretaría de Defensa del Consumidor en Argentina, 2000-2008 / Complaints by private health insurance policy-holders to the Consumer Protection Bureau in Argentina, 2000-2008 / As denúncias de afiliados às empresas de planos e seguros privados de saúde encaminhadas à Subsecretaría de Defensa del Consumidor na Argentina, 2000-2008

El trabajo analiza los problemas de los afiliados a las empresas de medicina prepaga en Argentina cuando las mismas incumplen con la Ley de Defensa del Consumidor. El universo de estudio se conformó por las denuncias de los afiliados durante los años 2000-2008, ante la Subsecretaría de Defensa del Consumidor de la Nación, y por las disposiciones y laudos emitidos por la misma. Un aspecto conclusivo es la recurrencia de los incumplimientos en las prestaciones del Programa Médico Obligatorio y los argumentos expuestos por las empresas, centrados en la responsabilización de los afiliados. Se advierte que la falta de un sistema de información a nivel nacional impide la realización de estudios empíricos que reflejen adecuadamente el problema. La discusión se realiza a partir de estudios sobre los seguros privados de salud en otros países de la región. Sobre ello se observa la importancia de estudiar a las empresas de medicina prepaga, su articulación con el sistema de salud, y los procesos de limitación y negación de la ciudadanía, así como la creciente judicialización de la salud.

This paper analyzes problems experienced by policy-holders of voluntary private health insurance plans in Argentina when insurance companies fail to comply with the Consumer Protection Code. The sample consisted of consumer complaints filed with the Consumer Protection Bureau and rulings by the Bureau from 2000 to 2008. One striking issue was recurrent non-compliance with services included in the Mandatory Medical Program and the companies’ attempts to blame policy-holders. According to the study, the lack of an information system hinders scientific studies to adequately address the problem. Thus, a comparison with studies on health insurance in other Latin American countries highlighted the importance of such research, the relationship to health systems, constraints on use and denial of citizens’ rights to healthcare, and the increasing judicialization of healthcare provision.

O artigo analisa os problemas dos usuários das empresas de planos e seguros privados de saúde na Argentina quando as mesmas não cumprem com a Lei de Defesa do Consumidor. O universo de estudo foram as reclamações dos usuários durante os anos 2000-2008 encaminhadas à Subsecretaría de Defensa del Consumidor, e as disposições e os laudos emitidos pela Subsecretaría. Um aspecto conclusivo é a recorrência do não cumprimento dos serviços do Programa Médico Obrigatório e o argumento das empresas centrado na responsabilização dos usuários. Avalia-se que a falta de um sistema de informação dificulta estudos empíricos que reflitam adequadamente o problema. Assim, com base em estudos sobre empresas de planos e seguros de saúde em outros países da América Latina, observa-se a importância de realizar estudos sobre as mesmas, sua relação com os sistemas de saúde e os processos de limitação e negação da cidadania e da crescente judicialização da saúde.