Unequivocal interpretation of dobutamine stress echocardiography in low-flow, low-gradient aortic stenosis by right parasternal view.

We present the case of a 77-years-old man with aortic valve stenosis (AS) and reduced left ventricular ejection fraction, in whom right parasternal view provided the best hemodynamic evaluation of AS severity during dobutamine stress echocardiography.

Atrial functional mitral regurgitation: The concept has evolved, but inconsistencies still remain.

In our commentary we elucidated the fact that functional mitral regurgitation (FMR) is divided into two morphological subtypes: annular dilation with normal leaflet motion (Carpentier type I) and restricted systolic motion with left ventricular remodeling or dysfunction (Carpentier type IIIb). However, these phenotypes show some degree of overlap and there are currently no distinctive diagnostic cut-off values, therefore they may represent a continuum of the same disease. Moreover, correct left chambers quantification is critical for differentiating between atrial FMR and ventricular FMR. Three-dimensional echocardiography can quantify better leaflet areas, lengths, and closing angles, as well as the coaptation index, by eliminating geometric assumptions and integrating tethering of all leaflet surface and annular area enlargement. Also, It is expected that the use of artificial intelligence solutions and the deployment of automated onboard software that requires no or limited human input will stimulate wider clinical use of three-dimensional echocardiography in left chambers quantification.

Optimal Use of Echocardiography in Management of Thrombosis After Anterior Myocardial Infarction.

Despite advancement in therapy and management, left ventricular thrombus (LVT) after anterior myocardial infarction (MI) is sporadically encountered and remains associated with a very high risk of major cardiovascular events and mortality. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) is considered the gold standard technique for LVT detection, but it is a time-consuming and expensive test not available in all centers, especially when repeated examinations are necessary. Transthoracic echocardiography represents a useful tool to screen for LVT and to identify predictors of high risk of developing LVT. The advances in ultrasound technology and the use of contrast agents may potentially help clinicians to identify LVT and the use of sequential echocardiography for each patient with acute MI complicated by LVT may provide an opportunity to quantify regression and its correlation with outcomes to tailor the management of these patients. Hence, this narrative review focuses on the added value of echocardiographic-guided LVT management in patients with recent anterior MI to reduce mortality and morbidity excess related to LVT based on current evidence.

Good prognosis for pericarditis with and without myocardial involvement: results from a multicenter, prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The natural history of myopericarditis/perimyocarditis is poorly known, and recently published studies have presented contrasting data on their outcomes. The aim of the present article is to assess the prognosis of myopericarditis/perimyocarditis in a multicenter, prospective cohort study. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 486 patients (median age, 39 years; range, 18-83 years; 300 men) with acute pericarditis or a myopericardial inflammatory syndrome (myopericarditis/perimyocarditis; 85% idiopathic, 11% connective tissue disease or inflammatory bowel disease, 5% infective) were prospectively evaluated from January 2007 to December 2011. The diagnosis of acute pericarditis was based on the presence of 2 of 4 clinical criteria (chest pain, pericardial rubs, widespread ST-segment elevation or PR depression, and new or worsening pericardial effusion). Myopericardial inflammatory involvement was suspected with atypical ECG changes for pericarditis, arrhythmias, and cardiac troponin elevation or new or worsening ventricular dysfunction on echocardiography and confirmed by cardiac magnetic resonance. After a median follow-up of 36 months, normalization of left ventricular function was achieved in >90% of patients with myopericarditis/perimyocarditis. No deaths were recorded, as well as evolution to heart failure or symptomatic left ventricular dysfunction. Recurrences (mainly as recurrent pericarditis) were the most common complication during follow-up and were recorded more frequently in patients with acute pericarditis (32%) than in those with myopericarditis (11%) or perimyocarditis (12%; P<0.001). Troponin elevation was not associated with an increase in complications. CONCLUSIONS: The outcome of myopericardial inflammatory syndromes is good. Unlike acute coronary syndromes, troponin elevation is not a negative prognostic marker in this setting.

[Paradoxical low flow-low gradient aortic stenosis: lights and shadows]. / Stenosi aortica "paradoxical low flow-low gradient": luci ed ombre.

Paradoxical low flow-low gradient aortic valve stenosis (AVS) is an increasing phenotype in the general population, particularly after the seventh decade of life. It is an AVS in which, despite the preserved ejection fraction, the mean transvalvular gradient is not suggestive of severe AVS (<40 mmHg). The pathophysiology is often intertwined with conditions resulting in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, such as arterial hypertension and cardiac amyloidosis. Its management is rather controversial about the diagnosis and therapeutic management. The aims of this focus are: to clarify the role and reliability of the main available diagnostic methods, the efficacy of surgical and percutaneous treatments, and to develop a diagnostic-therapeutic algorithm for managing this condition in clinical practice. This algorithm will involve a multi-parametric evaluation, integrating standard echocardiographic assessment with three-dimensional planimetric valve area calculation, determination of the energy loss index), and calcium score calculation by computed tomography scan. This approach aims to ascertain the severity of the stenosis and determine the appropriate therapeutic management.

[Spontaneous coronary dissection complicated by Takotsubo syndrome or Takotsubo syndrome complicated by spontaneous coronary dissection: the complex integration of invasive and non-invasive imaging]. / Dissezione coronarica spontanea complicata da sindrome Takotsubo o sindrome Takotsubo complicata da dissezione coronarica spontanea: quando l'integrazione tra imaging invasivo e non invasivo può essere complessa.

Spontaneous coronary artery dissection syndrome and Takotsubo syndrome are similar entities. They have peculiar features in common, such as a predilection for female sex, signs and symptoms compatible with acute coronary syndrome, high probability of restitutio ad integrum. The interdependence between these two diseases is of intriguing diagnostic and therapeutic implication.A 51-year-old woman presented to our attention with chest pain and evidence of ST-segment elevation. Coronary angiography showed the presence of type 2 dissection involving the diagonal branch. A conservative strategy was preferred. A severe emotional stress conditioned the following hours of hospitalization. A Takotsubo-like pattern was detected at focused echocardiogram. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging confirmed the typical left ventricular motion abnormalities of a stress cardiomyopathy and T2-weighted sequences showed increased late gadolinium enhancement in the diagonal branch area, leading to the diagnosis of a concomitant coronary dissection and Takotsubo cardiomyopathy.

[Atrial cardiomyopathy as a link between atrial fibrillation and stroke. Clinical implications and future diagnostic-therapeutic implications]. / La cardiomiopatia atriale come legame tra fibrillazione atriale e ictus. Implicazioni cliniche e implicazioni diagnostico-terapeutiche future.

Atrial myopathy is characterized by atrial fibrotic remodeling, together with electrical, mechanic and autonomic remodeling. Methods to identify atrial myopathy include atrial electrograms, tissue biopsy, cardiac imaging, and serum biomarkers. Accumulating data show that individuals with markers of atrial myopathy have an increased risk of developing both atrial fibrillation and strokes. The aim of the present review is to present atrial myopathy as a pathophysiologic and clinical entity, to describe methods for its detection and the possible implications on management and therapy in selected group of patients.

Unveiling the Hidden Chamber: Exploring the Importance of Left Atrial Function and Filling Pressure in Cardiovascular Health.

The left atrium (LA) is a vital component of the cardiovascular system, playing a crucial role in cardiac function. It acts as a reservoir, conduit, and contractile chamber, contributing to optimal left ventricle (LV) filling and cardiac output. Abnormalities in LA function have been associated with various cardiovascular conditions, including heart failure, atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease, and hypertension. Elevated left ventricular filling pressures resulting from impaired LA function can lead to diastolic dysfunction and increase the risk of adverse cardiovascular events. Understanding the relationship between LA function and LV filling pressures is crucial for comprehending the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases and guiding clinical management strategies. This article provides an overview of the anatomy and physiology of the LA, discusses the role of LA mechanics in maintaining normal cardiac function, highlights the clinical implications of elevated filling pressures, and explores diagnostic methods for assessing LA function and filling pressures. Furthermore, it discusses the prognostic implications and potential therapeutic approaches for managing patients with abnormal LA function and elevated filling pressure. Continued research and clinical focus on left atrial function are necessary to improve diagnostic accuracy, prognostic assessment, and treatment strategies in cardiovascular diseases. It will explore the importance of assessing LA function as a marker of cardiac performance and evaluate its implications for clinical practice. In accordance with rigorous scientific methodology, our search encompassed PubMed database. We selected articles deemed pertinent to our subject matter. Subsequently, we extracted and synthesized the salient contents, capturing the essence of each selected article.

Spontaneous coronary artery dissection: the emerging role of coronary computed tomography.

Spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) is a cause of acute coronary syndrome and myocardial infarction, more frequent among young women. Invasive coronary angiography (ICA) is the gold standard for the diagnosis of SCAD, although the risk of propagating dissection flap is considerable. Therefore, coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA) is an emerging alternative modality to diagnose SCAD with the advantage of being a non-invasive technique. Clinicians should be aware of the predisposing conditions and pathophysiology to raise the pre-test probability of SCAD and select the most appropriate diagnostic tools. In recent times, improvements in spatial and temporal resolution and the use of semi-automated software providing quantitative assessment make CCTA a valid alternative to ICA also for the follow-up. Moreover, CCTA may be helpful to screen and evaluate extra-coronary arteriopathies closely related to SCAD. In this review, we illustrate the current and the potential role of CCTA in the diagnosis of SCAD, highlighting advantages and disadvantages of this imaging modality compared to ICA.

Efficacy and safety of left atrial appendage closure compared with oral anticoagulation in atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and propensity-matched studies.

Backgrounds: Two recent randomized controlled trials (RCTs), the PROTECT-AF and the PREVAIL, showed that in atrial fibrillation (AF) patients, left atrial appendage closure (LAAC) is comparable to oral anticoagulants (OAC) in the prevention of stroke and could also possibly reduce mortality. Nevertheless, this net clinical benefit was not confirmed in the most recent RCT comparing LAAC vs. OAC, the PRAGUE-17 trial. Aim: aim of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of LAAC compared with OAC among available high-quality studies. Methods: A systematic search of electronic databases (Medline, Scopus, Embase and the Cochrane Library) was performed to identify eligible RCTs and observational studies with propensity score matching (PSM) analysis. PRISMA guidelines were used for abstracting data and assessing data quality and validity. Outcomes of interest were the occurrence of cardiovascular death (CVD), all-cause death, all-type stroke, and major bleedings. Results: A total of 3 RCTs and 7 PMS studies involving 25,700 patients were identified. 12,961 patients received LAAC while 12,739 received OAC therapy. After a median follow-up of 2.6 years (IQR 2-4.4), patients who received LAAC had lower risk of CVD (RR = 0.62; 95%CI, 0.51-0.74, I2 = 0%), all-cause death (RR = 0.67; 95% CI, 0.57-0.78, I2 68%) and major bleedings (RR = 0.68; 95%CI, 0.48-0.95 I2 = 87%) compared with patients on OAC. No difference was found between the two groups regarding strokes incidence (RR = 0.94; 95% CI, 0.77-1.15, I2 = 0%). Conclusions: According to this meta-analysis, LAAC has comparable efficacy in the prevention of stroke compared with OAC and a reduced risk of major bleedings, all-cause death and CVD that may be even larger with longer follow-up. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=269768, identifier CRD42021269768.

Case Report: Free-Floating Intracoronary Thrombus: Who Is the Convict?

In young patients, especially with no traditional coronary risk factors, hypercoagulable states may always be considered as an alternative cause of acute coronary syndromes. The concomitant thrombotic and bleeding risk associated with myeloproliferative disorders complicates the decision-making, particularly regarding long-term dual antiplatelet therapy. The chosen therapy may need to be frequently revisited, depending on the patient's bleeding complications. We reported the case of a 49-year-old woman with acute myocardial infarction with no traditional risk factors for coronary artery disease where a myeloproliferative neoplasm was diagnosed.

Case Report: Posterior Thoracic Window in the Presence of Pleural Effusion in Critical Care Medicine: One More Chance to Image the Aortic Valve.

Good quality echocardiographic images in the setting of critical care medicine may be difficult to obtain for many reasons. We present a case of an 85-year-old woman with acute pulmonary edema and pleural effusion, where transthoracic bedside echocardiographic examination raised a suspicion for significant aortic valve disease. However, given the orthopneic decubitus of the patients, the quality of images was poor. To increase the accuracy of diagnosis, a posterior thoracic view through the pleural effusion in the sitting position was used. This view allowed the diagnosis of mixed aortic valve disease (aortic stenosis and regurgitation) and the quantification of valve disease through multiparametric criteria as recommended by current guidelines. The posterior thoracic view, when feasible, may provide a useful option in the assessment of cardiac structures and further diagnostic information in technically difficult echocardiographic examinations.

Mitral Annular Disjunction of Degenerative Mitral Regurgitation: Three-Dimensional Evaluation and Implications for Mitral Repair.

BACKGROUND: The dynamic consequences of mitral annular disjunction (MAD) on the mitral apparatus and the left ventricle remain unclear and are crucial in the context of mitral surgery. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess mitral valvular, annular, and ventricular dynamics in mitral valve prolapse (MVP) stratified by presence of MAD. METHODS: In 61 patients (mean age, 62 ± 11 years; 25% women) with MVP and severe mitral regurgitation undergoing mitral surgery between 2009 and 2016, valvular and annular dimensions and dynamics by two-dimensional transthoracic and three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography and left ventricular dimensions and dynamics were analyzed stratified by presence of MAD before and after surgery. RESULTS: MAD (mean, 8 ± 3 mm) was diagnosed in 27 patients (44%; with a mean effective regurgitant orifice area of 0.55 ± 0.20 cm2 and similar to patients without MAD), more frequently in bileaflet prolapse (52% vs 18% in patients without MAD, P = .004), consistently involving P2 (P = .005). Patients with MAD displayed larger diastolic annular areas (mean, 1,646 ± 410 vs 1,380 ± 348 mm2), circumferences (mean, 150 ± 19 vs 137 ± 16 mm), and intercommissural diameters (mean, 48 ± 7 vs 43 ± 6 mm) compared with those without MAD (P ≤ .008 for all). Dynamically, mid- and late systolic excess intercommissural diameter, annular area, and circumference enlargement were associated with MAD (P ≤ .01 for all). MAD was also associated with dynamically annular slippage, larger prolapse volume and height (P ≤ .007), and larger leaflet area (mean, 2,053 ± 620 vs 1,692 ± 488 mm2, P = .01). Although patients with MAD compared with those without MAD showed similar ejection fractions (mean, 65 ± 5% vs 62 ± 8%, respectively, P = .10), systolic basal posterior thickness was increased in patients with MAD (mean, 19 ± 2 vs 15 ± 2 mm, P < .001), with higher systolic thickening of the basal posterior wall (mean, 74 ± 27% vs 50 ± 28%) and higher ratio of basal wall thickness to diameter (P ≤ .01 for both). However, after mitral repair, MAD disappeared, and LV diameter, wall thickness, and wall thickening showed no difference between patients with MAD and those without MAD (P ≥ .10 for all). CONCLUSIONS: MAD in patients with MVP involves a predominant phenotype of bileaflet MVP and causes profound annular dynamic alterations with considerable expansion and excess annular enlargement in systole, potentially affecting leaflet coaptation. MAD myocardial and annular slippage simulates vigorous left ventricular function without true benefit after surgical annular suture. Thus, although MAD does not hinder the feasibility and quality of valve repair, it requires careful suture of ring to ventricular myocardium, lest it persist postoperatively.

Management and Outcomes in the Elderly with Non-ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes Admitted to Spoke Hospitals with No Catheterization Laboratory Facility.

Background: Contemporary guidelines advocate for early invasive strategy with coronary angiography in patients with non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes (NSTE-ACS). Still, the impact of an invasive strategy in older patients remains controversial and may be challenging in spoke hospitals with no catheterization laboratory (cath-lab) facility. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyse the characteristics and outcomes of patients ≥80 years old with NSTE-ACS admitted to spoke hospitals. Methods: Observational−retrospective study of all consecutive NSTE-ACS patients admitted to two spoke hospitals of our cardiology network, where a service strategy (same-day transfer between a spoke hospital and a hub centre with a cath-lab facility in order to perform coronary angiography) was available. Patients were followed up for 1 year after the admission date. Results: From 2013 to 2017, 639 patients were admitted for NSTE-ACS; of these, 181 (28%) were ≥80 years old (median 84, IQR 82−89) and represented the study cohort. When the invasive strategy was chosen (in 105 patients, or 58%), 98 patients (93%) were initially managed with a service strategy, whereas the remainder of the patients were transferred from the spoke hospital to the hub centre where they completed their hospital stay. Of the patients managed with the service strategy, a shift of strategy after the invasive procedure was necessary for 10 (10%). These patients remained in the hub centre, while the rest of the patients were sent back to the spoke hospitals, with no adverse events observed during the back transfer. The median time to access the cath-lab was 50 h (IQR 25−87), with 73 patients (70%) reaching the invasive procedure <72 h from hospital admission. A conservative strategy was associated with: older age, known CAD, clinical presentation with symptoms of LV dysfunction, lower EF, renal failure, higher GRACE score, presence of PAD and atrial fibrillation (all p < 0.03). At the 1-year follow-up, the overall survival was significantly higher in patients treated with an invasive strategy compared to patients managed conservatively (94% ± 2 vs. 54% ± 6, p < 0.001; HR: 10.4 [4.7−27.5] p < 0.001), even after adjustment for age, serum creatinine, known previous CAD and EF (adjusted HR: 2.0 [1.0−4.0]; p < 0.001). Conclusions: An invasive strategy may confer a survival benefit in the elderly with NSTE-ACS. The same-day transfer between a spoke hospital and a hub centre with a cath-lab facility (service strategy) is safe and may grant access to the cath-lab in a timely fashion, even for the elderly.

[Ten questions on cardiac magnetic resonance in patients with heart failure: from etiological diagnosis to prognostic stratification]. / Dieci quesiti in tema di risonanza magnetica cardiaca nel paziente con scompenso cardiaco: dalla diagnosi eziologica alla stratificazione prognostica.

Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging has progressively become part of the imaging methods recommended in patients with heart failure. CMR represents the gold standard for assessing volumes, function, biventricular kinetics and providing tissue characterization through scans with and without contrast medium. In patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) and ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy, CMR allows to search for viability, accurately estimate volumes and ejection fraction. It can assess scar extent for predicting response to cardiac resynchronization therapy and for establishing an indication for implanting a defibrillator in borderline cases. In patients with HFrEF and non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy, CMR helps to identify specific etiological subgroups and to estimate the arrhythmic risk beyond ejection fraction. In patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, CMR offers the possibility of diagnosing specific phenotypes, including sarcomeric hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, amyloidosis or Fabry disease, and adds prognostic information. Both clinical and scientific interest in this imaging method is constantly expanding; the clinicians dealing with heart failure cannot fail to know the technique, the indications and all the potential that CMR can offer.

Unique Case of Spontaneous Left Main Coronary Dissection in Second Trimester of Pregnancy Successfully Treated with Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: A Happy Ending.

Among pregnant women, SCAD is the most frequent etiology of non-atherosclerotic acute coronary syndrome. SCAD related to pregnancy is more frequent within the first month (especially first week) of puerperium or last trimester, or is otherwise anecdotal. The concomitance of SCAD and pregnancy poses many issues regarding diagnosis and treatment in respect to maternal and fetal safety and requires tailored intervention with close interaction between clinical cardiologists, interventional cardiologists, cardiothoracic surgeons, and obstetricians. We report the case of a patient, pregnant in the second trimester with a life-threatening SCAD, successfully treated with percutaneous coronary intervention with excellent outcome for mother and baby.

The Common Combination of Aortic Stenosis with Mitral Regurgitation: Diagnostic Insight and Therapeutic Implications in the Modern Era of Advanced Echocardiography and Percutaneous Intervention.

The combination of aortic stenosis (AS) and mitral regurgitation (MR) is common in patients with degenerative valvular disease. It is characterized by having complex pathophysiology, leading to potential diagnostic pitfalls. Evidence is scarce in the literature to direct the diagnostic framework and treatment of patients with this particular combination of multiple valvular diseases. In this complex scenario, the appropriate use of advanced echocardiography and multimodality imaging methods plays a central role. Transcatheter mitral valve replacement or repair and transcatheter aortic valve replacement widen the surgical options for valve diseases. Therefore, there is an increasing need to reconsider the function, timing, and mode intervention for patients with a combination of AS with MR towards more personalized treatment.

Echocardiographic Left Ventricular Mass Assessment: Correlation between 2D-Derived Linear Dimensions and 3-Dimensional Automated, Machine Learning-Based Methods in Unselected Patients.

A recently developed algorithm for 3D analysis based on machine learning (ML) principles detects left ventricular (LV) mass without any human interaction. We retrospectively studied the correlation between 2D-derived linear dimensions using the ASE/EACVI-recommended formula and 3D automated, ML-based methods (Philips HeartModel) regarding LV mass quantification in unselected patients undergoing echocardiography. We included 130 patients (mean age 60 ± 18 years; 45% women). There was only discrete agreement between 2D and 3D measurements of LV mass (r = 0.662, r2 = 0.348, p < 0.001). The automated algorithm yielded an overestimation of LV mass compared to the linear method (Bland-Altman positive bias of 13.1 g with 95% limits of the agreement at 4.5 to 21.6 g, p = 0.003, ICC 0.78 (95%CI 0.68-8.4). There was a significant proportional bias (Beta -0.22, t = -2.9) p = 0.005, the variance of the difference varied across the range of LV mass. When the published cut-offs for LV mass abnormality were used, the observed proportion of overall agreement was 77% (kappa = 0.32, p < 0.001). In consecutive patients undergoing echocardiography for any indications, LV mass assessment by 3D analysis using a novel ML-based algorithm showed systematic differences and wide limits of agreements compared with quantification by ASE/EACVI- recommended formula when the current cut-offs and partition values were applied.

When Aortic Stenosis Is Not Alone: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Management in Mixed and Combined Valvular Disease.

Aortic stenosis (AS) may present frequently combined with other valvular diseases or mixed with aortic regurgitation, with peculiar physio-pathological and clinical implications. The hemodynamic interactions between AS in mixed or combined valve disease depend on the specific combination of valve lesions and may result in diagnostic pitfalls at echocardiography; other imaging modalities may be helpful. Indeed, diagnosis is challenging because several echocardiographic methods commonly used to assess stenosis or regurgitation have been validated only in patients with the single-valve disease. Moreover, in the developed world, patients with multiple valve diseases tend to be older and more fragile over time; also, when more than one valvular lesion needs to address the surgical risk rises together with the long-term risk of morbidity and mortality associated with multiple valve prostheses, and the likelihood and risk of reoperation. Therefore, when AS presents mixed or combined valve disease, the heart valve team must integrate various parameters into the diagnosis and management strategy, including suitability for single or multiple transcatheter valve procedures. This review aims to summarize the most critical pathophysiological mechanisms underlying AS when associated with mitral regurgitation, mitral stenosis, aortic regurgitation, and tricuspid regurgitation. We will focus on echocardiography, clinical implications, and the most important treatment strategies.

Clinical Value of Complex Echocardiographic Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Classification Based on Concentricity, Mass, and Volume Quantification.

Echocardiography is the most validated, non-invasive and used approach to assess left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). Alternative methods, specifically magnetic resonance imaging, provide high cost and practical challenges in large scale clinical application. To include a wide range of physiological and pathological conditions, LVH should be considered in conjunction with the LV remodeling assessment. The universally known 2-group classification of LVH only considers the estimation of LV mass and relative wall thickness (RWT) to be classifying variables. However, knowledge of the 2-group patterns provides particularly limited incremental prognostic information beyond LVH. Conversely, LV enlargement conveys independent prognostic utility beyond LV mass for incident heart failure. Therefore, a 4-group LVH subdivision based on LV mass, LV volume, and RWT has been recently suggested. This novel LVH classification is characterized by distinct differences in cardiac function, allowing clinicians to distinguish between different LV hemodynamic stress adaptations in various cardiovascular diseases. The new 4-group LVH classification has the advantage of optimizing the LVH diagnostic approach and the potential to improve the identification of maladaptive responses that warrant targeted therapy. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on clinical value of this refinement of the LVH classification, emphasizing the role of echocardiography in applying contemporary proposed indexation methods and partition values.