Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing.

European Paleolithic subsistence is assumed to have been largely based on animal protein and fat, whereas evidence for plant consumption is rare. We present evidence of starch grains from various wild plants on the surfaces of grinding tools at the sites of Bilancino II (Italy), Kostenki 16-Uglyanka (Russia), and Pavlov VI (Czech Republic). The samples originate from a variety of geographical and environmental contexts, ranging from northeastern Europe to the central Mediterranean, and dated to the Mid-Upper Paleolithic (Gravettian and Gorodtsovian). The three sites suggest that vegetal food processing, and possibly the production of flour, was a common practice, widespread across Europe from at least ~30,000 y ago. It is likely that high energy content plant foods were available and were used as components of the food economy of these mobile hunter-gatherers.

Lipid Process Markers of Durum Wheat Debranning Fractions.

At present, whole grains are usually obtained by adding bran and middlings to refined flours, and this recombination leads to certain variations in the ratio of endosperm, bran and germ, resulting in flours with very different compositional characteristics and rheological properties. Therefore, this study focuses on the identification of specific lipid markers in different debranning fractions of Italian and Canadian durum wheat blends. The by-products obtained from five different debranning levels (3, 6, 9, 12 and 15%) had a high content of monounsaturated fatty acids and a higher concentration of tocopherols and sterols than the corresponding debranned grains. The Italian and Canadian durum wheat samples did not show significant differences in the content of these bioactive lipid compounds. In particular, palmitic acid, oleic acid, tocopherol isomers and total sterols could be useful biomarkers for evaluating the grain-to-tissue ratio in recombined flours.

Assessment of Nutritional Value and Maillard Reaction in Different Gluten-Free Pasta.

Evaluating the nutritional quality and thermal damage effects of gluten-free foods is essential to ensure that people with gluten intolerance or celiac disease can safely meet their needs. In this work, fifteen different commercial gluten-free pasta samples made from cereals, pseudocereals, and pulses, alone or in mixed combinations, were analyzed to assess their nutritional value, essential amino acids composition, and protein chemical score. The occurrence of the Maillard reaction was investigated, and the levels of heat treatment markers (furosine, maltulose, hydroxymethylfurfural, and glucosylisomaltol) were determined. Analysis of the furosine values showed that pasta made with the same raw materials can have different degrees of thermal damage. There was no evidence of the Maillard reaction progressing in the advanced phase in any of the samples tested. Finally, the correlation between maltulose and furosine levels demonstrated the usefulness of combining the two markers to assess the extent of thermal damage.

Folate Enrichment of Whole-Meal Spaghetti Using Durum Wheat Debranning Fractions.

Durum wheat debranning fractions (fine and coarse bran) were obtained and included as an ingredient in the formulation of whole-meal spaghetti to study their chemical-nutritional characteristics, in particular folate levels and sensorial properties. Experimental raw pasta had a higher folate content (40.5 µg/100 g) than commercial whole-meal pasta (28.3 µg/100 g), meeting the requirements for the health claim on folate (Reg. EU 432/2012) and for the nutritional claim on dietary fiber. After cooking, folate retention in pasta formulated with coarse bran was 80% and scored an overall "good" sensorial acceptability. Results indicate that whole-meal pasta formulated with folate-rich debranning fractions may represent a natural functional food that, integrated into the diet, could improve the health status of the population.

Effect of Three Bakery Products Formulated with High-Amylose Wheat Flour on Post-Prandial Glycaemia in Healthy Volunteers.

Both Glycaemic index (GI) and Glycaemic Load (GL) were introduced to measure the impact of a carbohydrate-containing food on blood glucose. From this perspective, high-amylose (HA) flours, with a higher percentage of resistant starch (RS), may represent a suitable raw material to improve the glycaemic response. The present work aims to investigate the GI of HA bakery products (biscuits, taralli and bread) compared to products obtained from conventional flour. Ten healthy volunteers were enrolled and their capillary blood glucose was measured every 15 min for 2 h after the consumption of HA and control products containing 50 g of available carbohydrates. On average, in the three bakery products, the amount of total starch replaced by RS was equal to 12%. HA biscuits and HA bread showed significantly lower GI than their control counterparts (p = 0.0116 and p = 0.011, respectively) and better glycaemic control. From the survey to assess liking and willingness to pay on HA snacks, HA packages received an average premium of €0.66 compared to control products. Although HA flour results in lower GI in both biscuits and bread, further studies are needed to evaluate the correct composition of HA products to have beneficial effects on post-prandial glycaemia.

Sustainable Re-Use of Brewer's Spent Grain for the Production of High Protein and Fibre Pasta.

Brewer's spent grains are one of the principal by-products of the brewing industry. For protein and fibre content, this by-product represents an interesting raw material to be reused for manufacturing many other products. To maximize the nutritional characteristics of this by-product, in this study, ingredients derived from brewer's spent grains were included in the design of innovative dry pasta. Two brewer's spent grains derivative ingredients, one enriched in proteins and the other in fibre were blended with semolina. Based on the rheological evaluation, the optimal amount of the two ingredients for producing pasta was determined. In particular, pasta responding to the claims "High Protein" and "High Fibre" was realized using the formulation enriched with 15% of protein-rich ingredient and the claim "High Fibre" and "Source of proteins" using the formulation enriched with 10% of fibre-rich ingredient. The final products were compared to 100% semolina and 100% wholegrain semolina pasta for composition, color, texture, and cooking quality, revealing excellent quality characteristics. The newly formulated pasta represents a successful match of technological aptitude, nutritional/sensorial quality, and sustainability.

Design of Cereal Products Naturally Enriched in Folate from Barley Pearling By-Products.

Folate is a fundamental vitamin for human health in prevention of many diseases; however, unfortunately its deficiency is widespread, so a greater availability of folate rich foods is desirable. The aim of this study was to design new cereal products naturally enriched in folate using barley flour from pearling as ingredient. Folate content of unfortified and fortified commercial grain-based products was considered to identify the best ingredients for new formulation and for folate content comparisons. Nineteen Italian barley cultivars were evaluated for their folate content and Natura was chosen for its highest folate levels = 69.3 µg/100 g f.w. Application of pearling gave a by-product flour with a high folate level: 221.7 ± 7.0 µg/100 g; this flour was employed to design pasta and biscuits naturally enriched in folate: 87.1 µg/100 g and 70.1 ± 3.7 µg/100 g f.w., respectively. Folate content of new products is higher than commercial samples: 39.2 µg/100 g in refined pasta, 60.4 µg/100 g in wholemeal pasta, 62.1 µg/100 g in fortified biscuits and 10.4 µg/100 g in unfortified ones. Enriched pasta had higher folate retention (68.5%) after cooking compared to the fortified one (27.8%). This research shows promising results concerning the pearling technique to design new cereal products naturally enriched in folates.

Evolution of Free Amino Acids, Histamine and Volatile Compounds in the Italian Anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus L.) Sauce at Different Ripening Times.

In this study, the evolution of the safety, nutritional, and volatile profile of a traditional Italian anchovy sauce with protected designation of origin (PDO), called "colatura di alici di Cetara", is investigated after 12, 24, and 48 months of aging in wooden barrels. Some physicochemical parameters, free amino acids, volatile compounds, and histamine contents were evaluated during the aging of the samples. Glutamate, which together with aspartate is responsible for the umami taste, was the predominant free amino acid in the tested fish sauce, with a significant increase during the 48 months of maturation. The total amino acid content of the anchovy sauce increased from 24 to 48 months of aging. The histamine content decreased significantly from 12 to 48 months of ripening. This point is particularly interesting for the sauce safety and confirms the importance of the maturation time of at least 9 months reported in the disciplinary of production. A total of 44 volatile compounds were found in the anchovy sauce samples, of which the largest class was acids, mainly isovaleric acid. The results show that prolonged maturation improves the safety, nutritional, and volatile components of the seasoning "colatura di alici".

Effects of a diet with inulin-enriched pasta on gut peptides and gastric emptying rates in healthy young volunteers.

AIM: Our group has previously shown that the administration of pasta enriched along with the prebiotic inulin induces a significant reduction in triglyceride and glucose levels with a significant delay in gastric emptying (GE) rates. This protective effect may occur by affecting the release of a number of gut peptides involved in the control of gastrointestinal motility. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of inulin-enriched pasta on the circulating levels of neurotensin (NT), somatostatin (SS), and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in relation to the GE time in young healthy subjects. METHODS: Twenty healthy young male volunteers completed a randomized double-blind crossover study consisting of a 2-week run-in period and two 5-week study periods (11% inulin-enriched/control pasta), with an 8-week wash-out period in between. Gut peptide concentrations were evaluated by radioimmunoassay. GE time was evaluated by ultrasonography. RESULTS: The prebiotic treatment significantly increased the area under the curve (AUC) values of both NT and SS (p < 0.05 Dunn's post-test). With regard to gastric motility, along with a significant delay in both the final time and T (1/2) gastric emptying time, a positive correlation was found between T (1/2) and SS AUC values (r = 0.57, p = 0.009) in the inulin-enriched pasta group. CONCLUSION: These results support the hypothesis that inulin plays an active role in mechanisms affecting the release of these gut peptides, which may modulate the gastric emptying of digesta.

Dietary fiber and flavan-3-ols in shortbread biscuits enriched with barley flours co-products.

The coarse fraction obtained by air classification of barley flour, rich in dietary fiber and flavan-3-ols, was utilized to develop functional biscuits. The flavan-3-ol content, antioxidant activity and oxidative stability of biscuits were measured during storage under retail conditions for 1 year. The replacement of 60% (w/w) refined wheat flour with barley coarse fraction increased the ash, fiber and flavan-3-ol contents significantly. Biscuit samples enriched with barley coarse fraction had a significantly higher amount of fiber compared with the control sample (six times higher). The ß-glucan content in enriched samples was 15 times higher than control samples. The flavan-3-ol loss in biscuits after baking was about 67%. The initial content of flavan-3-ols increased from 0.6 to 4.3 mg/100 g in biscuits formulated with barley coarse fraction and showed improved antioxidant properties. Lipid oxidation increased during the shelf-life; the enriched biscuit showed the higher lipid oxidation status, but the level reached during the shelf-life was lower than the limit of acceptance reported for bakery products and, for this reason, does not compromise the safety.

Distribution of free and bound phenolic compounds, and alkylresorcinols in wheat aleurone enriched fractions.

Several companies have focused their attention on the development of technologies able to enrich/isolate the wheat aleuronic layer because it is a source of bioactive compounds. In this work two different wheat bran fractions enriched in aleurone (AF1, 55-70% aleurone and AF2, 75-90% aleurone) were obtained by a dry fractionation based on air classification. Free and bound phenolic compounds, and alkylresorcinols were determined in the two fractions by HPLC-DAD-ESI-TOF-MS and GC-MS, respectively. To our knowledge, feruloyl di-hexoside was described for the first time in wheat aleurone and flavonoids were quantified for the first time in this fraction. The results have shown that the most concentrated free phenolic compounds were flavonoids, and AF1 was the fraction that presented the highest flavonoid content; whereas trans ferulic acid was the most abundant bound phenolic acid, which highest content was obtained in AF2. Besides, total content of ferulic acid monomers in AF2 was 33.63% higher than in AF1, whereas total content of ferulic acid dimers/trimers in AF1 was 33.9% higher than in AF2. The highest content of alkylresorcinols was obtained in AF1 and it was 10.30% higher than the obtained in AF2. Therefore, it can be stated that this green technology could be used to produce enriched aleurone fractions as source of phenolic and alkylresorcinol compounds. These fractions could be of great interest for the formulation of enriched foods.

Nutritional and Technological Quality of High Protein Pasta.

Pasta has an important role in human nutrition for its high content of complex carbohydrates and its widespread use. It can be an efficient delivery system or carrier of non-traditional raw material, including additional health-promoting ingredients. The partial replacement of semolina with high-protein raw materials leads to the improvement of the biological value of pasta proteins. In order to obtain pasta with high nutritional protein value and with excellent cooking properties, various recipes have been formulated with different percentages of semolina and unconventional high-protein raw materials (peas and soy isolate proteins, egg white, whey proteins and Spirulina platensis). High-protein pasta was produced using a pasta making pilot plant and the nutritional quality (protein content and quality) and sensorial properties were assessed. All experimental pastas showed optimal performances. Pasta prepared with pea protein isolate, whey proteins and Spirulina platensis showed improved chemical score and digestible indispensable amino acid scores, an eye-catching color, and an excellent cooking quality.

Rheological and Nutritional Assessment of Dysphagia-Oriented New Food Preparations.

Dysphagia that involves difficulty swallowing food and liquids is a symptom of different diseases. In some cases, patients who experience this symptom should be fed with modified consistency foods. Dysphagia is often accompanied by malnutrition and dehydration and an interesting approach to dealing with these conditions is to provide patients with nutrient-rich foods. In this study, two new food formulations for dysphagia patients are proposed: a cereal-based protein meal and a vegetable cream. The nutritional and rheological characteristics of the two innovative preparations were assessed and compared with those of commercial products. The proposed protein meal formulations meet the criteria for the "high protein" claim and the vegetable cream meets those of the "source of fiber" claim. The rheological investigation revealed that the flow properties of the innovative formulations were comparable to those of the commercial ones. Based on these preliminary outcomes, this investigation represents an interesting perspective potentially valuable to enlarge the offer of possibilities for people suffering from swallowing disorders.

Satiating effect of a barley beta-glucan-enriched snack.

OBJECTIVE: Increasing viscous dietary fiber in snacks may have several nutritional advantages, especially for adolescents. Having a snack that may exert direct health benefits and that may, at the same time, contribute to the voluntary reduction of energy intake through modulation of appetite may be a useful dietary strategy for energy control in adolescence. In this short-term study, a new type of biscuit containing 5.2% barley beta-glucan was produced and its effect on appetite moods and food intake was investigated. METHODS: Twenty healthy adolescents were selected and randomly assigned to receive, as a midmorning snack, a 628 kJ (SP) or 1884 kJ (LP) preload of barley beta-glucan-enriched (BB) or control (CB) biscuits. Appetite ratings before and within 2 hours following the snack, as well as the energy intake at lunch, were recorded. RESULTS: For all sensations, a peak at 15 minutes post-snack and a subsequent return to baseline value were shown. A decrease of the area under the curve (AUC) of the desire to eat and an increase of the AUC of fullness and satiety were recorded with SP-BB compared to SP-CB. The energy intake recorded at the lunch test was always significantly lower than that at the control lunch only in females (3048 kJ vs. 3890 kJ) independently from the type of snack consumed. Total energy intake significantly correlated with preload values both in females and in males, but not with the type of biscuit. Nutritional composition of meals consumed ad libitum did not vary significantly from those with different preloads. CONCLUSIONS: The BB, consumed as a midmorning snack, although able to influence appetite ratings, did not modify food intake in a short time period.

Effect of Different Egg Products on Lipid Oxidation of Biscuits.

Egg products are one of the main ingredients used in bakery industries, and they contain cholesterol. Cholesterol suffers several chemical changes during the food processes, allowing some potentially toxic compounds called cholesterol oxidized products (COPs). Thus, the aim of this work was to study the evolution of lipid oxidation from eggs to egg products, and to evaluate the influence of egg products on COPs formation in biscuits formulated with them. The results confirmed that spray-drying technology improves the cholesterol oxidation 2.6 times compared to pasteurized eggs. Biscuit samples showed a COPs content that is strictly related to the egg products used. Samples formulated with spray-dried eggs noticed lower amounts of COPs compared to those formulated with pasteurized eggs. It is important to stress that COPs composition was different between the two samples, underlining that the kinetic of COPs formation is dependent on the type of egg products.

Assessment of phytochemical compounds in functional couscous: Determination of free and bound phenols and alkylresorcinols.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the content of free and bound phenols and alkylresorcinols in functional couscous enriched with barley coarse fraction obtained by air classification. Two different levels of enriched barley flour (20 and 30%) were used for the formulation of couscous and they were compared with a control couscous made with 100% of semolina. HPLC-ESI-TOF-MS was used to determine the phenolic composition in couscous samples. Total free phenolic compounds content in control couscous was 182 µg/100 g d.m. This amount increases significantly when coarse barley flour is added reaching value of 2273 µg/100 g d.m. and 2978 µg/100 g d.m. when 20 and 30% of barley coarse fraction was used, respectively. Moreover, the main free phenolic compounds in enriched barley samples are represented by flavan-3-ols. Bound phenols ranged from 5242 µg/100 g d.m. for control couscous to 27,092 µg/100 g d.m. for couscous with 30% of barley coarse fraction with a strong prevalence of phenolic acids. Finally, regarding alkylresorcinol compounds, they ranged from 1.01 mg/g d.m. for control couscous to 2.46 mg/g d.m. for couscous with 30% of barley coarse fraction. In conclusion, on the basis of obtained results, barley coarse fraction can be considered a good ingredient to develop functional couscous naturally enriched of phenolic compounds and alkylresorcinols.

Enhanced Curcumin Bioavailability through Nonionic Surfactant/Caseinate Mixed Nanoemulsions.

The potential of heterogeneous systems like oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions is exploited as an oral delivery system for curcumin, a natural lipophilic compound with numerous health benefits. Two types of O/W nanoemulsions, one stabilized by sodium caseinate (Cas-O/W), a surface-active and emulsifying protein, and the other stabilized by a blend of caseinate and Tween 20 (Mix-O/W), were loaded with the bioactive compound and tested through a simulated gastrointestinal digestion process to evaluate their effects on delivering of curcumin. It was first demonstrated that the amount of curcumin solubilized through Mix-O/W nanoemulsion was higher than that in Cas-O/W nanoemulsion. Cas-O/W nanoemulsions, indeed, at their best, solubilized about 55 µg/mL of curcumin while Mix-O/W nanoemulsions reached a curcumin concentration around 180 µg/mL. Furthermore, for both the systems an increase of curcumin loading capacity was recorded with the rise of incubation temperature. Finally, after the in vitro simulated digestion process, the potential curcumin bioavailability was evaluated and the data suggested that Mix-O/W nanoemulsions provided more than twice the amount of curcumin compared to Cas-O/W nanoemulsions. On balance, the outcomes of this investigation demonstrated that the mixed emulsifier system offered a higher amount of lipophilic compound with a low fat intake compared to nanoemulsions stabilized by sodium caseinate. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The outcomes of this study allow the recognition of the protein/surfactant-stabilized nanoemulsions as a suitable solution to deliver curcumin. The nanoemulsions proposed here provide a high intake of curcumin, a lipophilic compound, with low fat content. The use of such delivery systems helps to overcome limits in oral bioavailability related with the scarce solubility of some compounds in food preparations and beverages.

Distribution of Free and Bound Phenolic Compounds in Buckwheat Milling Fractions.

Buckwheat is a rich source of phenolic compounds that have shown to possess beneficial effect to reduce some diseases due to their antioxidant power. Phenolic compounds are present in the free and in the bound form to the cell wall that are concentrated mainly in the outer layer (hull and bran). Hull is removed before the milling of buckwheat to obtain flours. In order to evaluate the phenolic composition in dehulled buckwheat milling fractions, it was carried out a determination of free and bound phenolic compounds in dehulled whole buckwheat flour, light flour, bran flour, and middling flour by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). The most abundant free phenolic compounds were rutin and epiafzelchin-epicatechin-O-dimethylgallate, whereas the most abundant bound phenolic compounds were catechin and epicatechin in all buckwheat flours. Besides, the highest content of free phenolic compounds was obtained in bran flour (1249.49 mg/kg d.w.), whereas the greatest bound phenolic content was in middling (704.47 mg/kg d.w.) and bran flours (689.81 mg/kg d.w.). Thus, middling and bran flours are naturally enriched flours in phenolic compounds that could be used to develop functional foods.

Use of Sieving As a Valuable Technology to Produce Enriched Buckwheat Flours: A Preliminary Study.

Fractionation processes based on physical separation are a good strategy to produce enriched cereal flours. Therefore, the aim of this work is to evaluate the suitability of sieving of buckwheat flours to produce protein and phenolic (especially rutin) enriched fractions. Because of that, dehulled whole buckwheat flour (GSTQ) was sieved obtaining fractions with a particle size of 215 µm, 160 µm, 85 µm, and 45 µm (GS215, GS160, GS85, and GS45). For that purpose, the determination of protein, ash, and total starch content and free and bound phenolic compounds was carried out. The highest content of total phenolic compounds was obtained in GS215 (3118.84 mg Kg-1 d.w.), followed by GS160 (2499.11 mg Kg-1 d.w.), GS85 (989.46 mg Kg-1 d.w.), GSTQ (983.15 mg Kg-1 d.w.), and GS45 (481.31 mg Kg-1 d.w.). Therefore, the phenolic content decreased with the particle size decrease from 215 µm to 45 µm. Besides, there were no significant differences between the total phenolic content in GS85 and GSTQ. The fraction with 215 µm reported the highest protein and mineral salt content and presented rutin amounts four times higher than GSTQ.

Inulin-enriched pasta affects lipid profile and Lp(a) concentrations in Italian young healthy male volunteers.

BACKGROUND: Inulin has been suggested to have beneficial effects on lipids, especially on triglyceridemia. Few data are available about the effects of inulin on Lipoprotein(a), a low-density lipoprotein-like particle considered as an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis. Adding inulin to pasta could be a preventive strategy for delaying the onset of atherosclerosis. AIM OF THE STUDY: was to evaluate the effects of inulin-enriched pasta on lipid profile and on Lipoprotein(a) in young healthy subjects. METHODS: Twenty-two young healthy male volunteers entered a randomized double blind cross-over study consisting of a 2-weeks run-in period, a baseline assessment, two 5-weeks study periods (11% inulin-enriched or control pasta), and an 8-weeks wash-out period in between. Serum lipid concentrations were evaluated by routine biochemical analyses and plasma Lipoprotein(a) concentrations by ELISA. The size of apolipoprotein(a) isoforms was determined by Western blot and immunodetection. RESULTS: Significant differences at baseline and in the treatment groups were found for HDL-cholesterol (P = 0.004), total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio (P = 0.006), triglycerides (P = 0.04), and Lipoprotein(a) (P = 0.02) concentrations (data analyzed by Friedman test). Dunn's multiple comparison test was used to assess the significance of differences between inulin-enriched pasta diet vs. baseline. HDL-cholesterol concentrations increased by 35.9%; total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio, triglycerides, and Lipoprotein(a) concentrations decreased by 22.2, 23.4, and 16.5% respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Inulin-enriched pasta administration induced significant effects on lipid pattern parameters in young healthy volunteers, including a significant reduction in Lipoprotein(a) concentrations.