Adaptive Cellular Radiations and the Genetic Mechanisms Underlying Animal Nervous System Diversification.

In animals, the nervous system evolved as the primary interface between multicellular organisms and the environment. As organisms became larger and more complex, the primary functions of the nervous system expanded to include the modulation and coordination of individual responsive cells via paracrine and synaptic functions as well as to monitor and maintain the organism's own internal environment. This was initially accomplished via paracrine signaling and eventually through the assembly of multicell circuits in some lineages. Cells with similar functions and centralized nervous systems have independently arisen in several lineages. We highlight the molecular mechanisms that underlie parallel diversifications of the nervous system.

Cnidarian Cell Type Diversity and Regulation Revealed by Whole-Organism Single-Cell RNA-Seq.

The emergence and diversification of cell types is a leading factor in animal evolution. So far, systematic characterization of the gene regulatory programs associated with cell type specificity was limited to few cell types and few species. Here, we perform whole-organism single-cell transcriptomics to map adult and larval cell types in the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis, a non-bilaterian animal with complex tissue-level body-plan organization. We uncover eight broad cell classes in Nematostella, including neurons, cnidocytes, and digestive cells. Each class comprises different subtypes defined by the expression of multiple specific markers. In particular, we characterize a surprisingly diverse repertoire of neurons, which comparative analysis suggests are the result of lineage-specific diversification. By integrating transcription factor expression, chromatin profiling, and sequence motif analysis, we identify the regulatory codes that underlie Nematostella cell-specific expression. Our study reveals cnidarian cell type complexity and provides insights into the evolution of animal cell-specific genomic regulation.

Transactional sex in humanitarian settings: A comparative analysis of livelihood and demographic predictors.

Millions of people have been displaced within or outside their countries. Disruptions associated with displacement often lead to transactional sex with dire social, sexual and reproductive health implications. A common driver of transactional sex is food insecurity among refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs), yet IDP/refugee settings offer an opportunity for females to challenge and renegotiate gender norms and exercise greater control over their lives and sexuality. We compared predictors of transactional sex across humanitarian settings and found them to be significantly different. Among IDPs, the likelihood of transactional sex reduces with having access to food ration and education, but increases with having 'other sources' of income. Among refugees, transactional sex likelihood reduces with having either/both parent(s) alive but increases with working for money. Hence, multiple factors drive transactional sex in different contexts. Protecting women in humanitarian situations from the risks of transactional sex requires an understanding of these differences.

Des millions de personnes ont été déplacées à l'intérieur ou à l'extérieur de leur pays. Les perturbations associées au déplacement conduisent souvent à des relations sexuelles transactionnelles avec des conséquences désastreuses sur la santé sociale, sexuelle et reproductive. L'insécurité alimentaire parmi les réfugiés et les personnes déplacées à l'intérieur de leur propre pays (PDI) est un facteur courant du sexe transactionnel. Pourtant, les contextes de PDI/réfugiés offrent aux femmes la possibilité de remettre en question et de renégocier les normes de genre et d'exercer un plus grand contrôle sur leur vie et leur sexualité. Nous avons comparé les prédicteurs du sexe transactionnel dans différents contextes humanitaires et nous avons constaté qu'ils étaient significativement différents. Parmi les personnes déplacées, la probabilité de relations sexuelles transactionnelles diminue avec l'accès à la ration alimentaire et à l'éducation, mais augmente avec « d'autres sources ¼ de revenus. Parmi les réfugiés, la probabilité de relations sexuelles transactionnelles diminue lorsque l'un ou les deux parents sont en vie, mais augmente lorsque l'on travaille pour de l'argent. Par conséquent, de multiples facteurs déterminent le sexe transactionnel dans différents contextes. Protéger les femmes dans les situations humanitaires contre les risques liés aux relations sexuelles transactionnelles nécessite une compréhension de ces différences..

Contraceptive use, menstrual resumption, and experience of pregnancy and birth among girls and young women in an internally displaced persons camp in Northeastern Nigeria.

In Northeastern Nigeria 600,000 internally displaced girls and women need sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) services. We examined the relationships between contraceptive use, menstrual resumption, and pregnancy and birth experiences among girls (ages 15-19) and young women (ages 20-24) in an IDP camp. Data are from a cross-sectional survey collected using three-stage cluster sampling; the analytic sample is 480. Data were analyzed in Stata 14 using logistic regression models. Sixty-three percent of respondents had ever had sex and over half were currently sexually active. Current contraceptive use was 8% and 47% had ever been pregnant. Older respondents and those who had ever had sex were more likely to have heard of a contraceptive method and current use was higher for women with 5 or more births. These findings indicate a need for better contraceptive education for girls before sexual activity and promotion of contraception that accounts for fertility preferences in this setting.

Strengthening local capacity for abortion-related research in contexts with highly restrictive abortion laws: The case of STARS in Mali.

Strong local abortion research capacity is missing in many African countries. We report on the Strengthening Abortion Research Capacity in sub-Saharan Africa (STARS) program, an ongoing initiative to strengthen local capacity for abortion research in Mali, West Africa. We highlight the background, context, and methodology of the initiative as well as its achievements, challenges, and emerging lessons. Within a short time, STARS has initiated some key studies on abortion in Mali and created a much-needed platform for nurturing the country's next generation of abortion researchers, institutionalizing abortion research, increasing the quantity and quality of locally generated evidence on abortion, and facilitating evidence-informed abortion policy and programmatic action. The program's learning-by-doing approach has boosted the skills of individual researchers while also enhancing institution-based abortion and sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) research expertise in Mali. Although STARS' capacity to deliver its mandate over time is evident, ultimate results will depend on the sustained commitment of funders to the program in the full realization that capacity building requires long-term investment and support for it to fully bear fruits.

Provision and uptake of sexual and reproductive health services during the COVID-19 pandemic: The case of Mali.

A qualitative study assessed the effects of the COVID-19 epidemic on Malian sexual and reproductive health services. Sexual and reproductive health (SRHR) providers in 25 purposively selected public health facilities in urban Bamako, rural Kita (western Mali) and Koutiala (southeast Mali) were interviewed. Disruptions within SRH supply, staffing, the prioritization of SRHR services, and patients' ability to seek, obtain and pay for services were reported across urban and rural settings at all levels of public health care, and by all cadres of SRHR providers. Most facilities in the study areas sustained some SRHR services at the height of the COVID-19 epidemic through innovative outreach and phone-based consultations. This study offers critical lessons for SRHR service provision during future waves of the pandemic or during periods of comparable emergency.

From nerve net to nerve ring, nerve cord and brain--evolution of the nervous system.

The puzzle of how complex nervous systems emerged remains unsolved. Comparative studies of neurodevelopment in cnidarians and bilaterians suggest that this process began with distinct integration centres that evolved on opposite ends of an initial nerve net. The 'apical nervous system' controlled general body physiology, and the 'blastoporal nervous system' coordinated feeding movements and locomotion. We propose that expansion, integration and fusion of these centres gave rise to the bilaterian nerve cord and brain.

Men's support for abortion in Upper East and Upper West Ghana.

The second leading cause of maternal mortality in Ghana is unsafe abortion. Research in Ghana shows that men's support influences women's use of safe abortion services. The aim of this study was to understand what men know about abortion, why they support their partners to seek an abortion, and to identify effective ways to reach men with abortion information. We conducted eleven focus groups and ten in-depth interviews with men of reproductive age in rural Ghana. Inclusion criteria were written consent, age and marital status. Focus groups and interviews were conducted in local languages using a semi-structured guide. Focus groups and interviews were audiotaped, transcribed, translated, computerised and coded for analysis. Most men knew the difference between unsafe and safe abortion and would support their partner to have an abortion. Messages that reinforce safe abortion as acceptable and that address fears of death or barrenness should be developed to educate men about safe abortion. Multiple channels to communicate these messages should be used and include pictures, video or audio for those men who cannot read. Through an intensive intervention inclusive of men, women's access to safe abortion services can be improved in Ghana.

Women's experiences with medication for menstrual regulation in Bangladesh.

Menstrual regulation has been legal in Bangladesh since 1974, but the use of medication for menstrual regulation is new. In this study, we sought to understand women's experiences using medication for menstrual regulation in Bangladesh. We conducted 20 in-depth interviews with rural and urban women between December 2013 and February 2014. All interviews were audiotaped, transcribed, translated, computer recorded and coded for analysis. The majority of women in our study had had positive experiences with medication for menstrual regulation and successful outcomes, regardless of whether they obtained their medication from medicine sellers/pharmacies, doctors or clinics. Women were strongly influenced by health providers when deciding which method to use. There is a need to educate not only women of reproductive age, but also communities as a whole, about medication for menstrual regulation, with a particular emphasis on cost and branding the medication. Continued efforts to improve counselling by providers about the dose, medication and side-effects of medication for menstrual regulation, along with education of the community about medication as an option for menstrual regulation, will help to de-stigmatise the procedure and the women who seek it.

Larval body patterning and apical organs are conserved in animal evolution.

BACKGROUND: Planktonic ciliated larvae are characteristic for the life cycle of marine invertebrates. Their most prominent feature is the apical organ harboring sensory cells and neurons of largely undetermined function. An elucidation of the relationships between various forms of primary larvae and apical organs is key to understanding the evolution of animal life cycles. These relationships have remained enigmatic due to the scarcity of comparative molecular data. RESULTS: To compare apical organs and larval body patterning, we have studied regionalization of the episphere, the upper hemisphere of the trochophore larva of the marine annelid Platynereis dumerilii. We examined the spatial distribution of transcription factors and of Wnt signaling components previously implicated in anterior neural development. Pharmacological activation of Wnt signaling with Gsk3ß antagonists abolishes expression of apical markers, consistent with a repressive role of Wnt signaling in the specification of apical tissue. We refer to this Wnt-sensitive, six3- and foxq2-expressing part of the episphere as the 'apical plate'. We also unraveled a molecular signature of the apical organ--devoid of six3 but expressing foxj, irx, nkx3 and hox--that is shared with other marine phyla including cnidarians. Finally, we characterized the cell types that form part of the apical organ by profiling by image registration, which allows parallel expression profiling of multiple cells. Besides the hox-expressing apical tuft cells, this revealed the presence of putative light- and mechanosensory as well as multiple peptidergic cell types that we compared to apical organ cell types of other animal phyla. CONCLUSIONS: The similar formation of a six3+, foxq2+ apical plate, sensitive to Wnt activity and with an apical tuft in its six3-free center, is most parsimoniously explained by evolutionary conservation. We propose that a simple apical organ--comprising an apical tuft and a basal plexus innervated by sensory-neurosecretory apical plate cells--was present in the last common ancestors of cnidarians and bilaterians. One of its ancient functions would have been the control of metamorphosis. Various types of apical plate cells would then have subsequently been added to the apical organ in the divergent bilaterian lineages. Our findings support an ancient and common origin of primary ciliated larvae.