Collaborative drug therapy management: case studies of three community-based models of care.

Collaborative drug therapy management agreements are a strategy for expanding the role of pharmacists in team-based care with other providers. However, these agreements have not been widely implemented. This study describes the features of existing provider-pharmacist collaborative drug therapy management practices and identifies the facilitators and barriers to implementing such services in community settings. We conducted in-depth, qualitative interviews in 2012 in a federally qualified health center, an independent pharmacy, and a retail pharmacy chain. Facilitators included 1) ensuring pharmacists were adequately trained; 2) obtaining stakeholder (eg, physician) buy-in; and 3) leveraging academic partners. Barriers included 1) lack of pharmacist compensation; 2) hesitation among providers to trust pharmacists; 3) lack of time and resources; and 4) existing informal collaborations that resulted in reduced interest in formal agreements. The models described in this study could be used to strengthen clinical-community linkages through team-based care, particularly for chronic disease prevention and management.

An Evaluation Framework for a Novel Process to Codevelop Written and Computable Guidelines.

Clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) support individual and population health by translating new, evidence-based knowledge into recommendations for health practice. CPGs can be provided as computable, machine-readable guidelines that support the translation of recommendations into shareable, interoperable clinical decision support and other digital tools (eg, quality measures, case reports, care plans). Interdisciplinary collaboration among guideline developers and health information technology experts can facilitate the translation of written guidelines into computable ones. The benefits of interdisciplinary work include a focus on the needs of end-users who apply guidelines in practice through clinic decision support systems as part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC's) Adapting Clinical Guidelines for the Digital Age (ACG) initiative, a group of interdisciplinary experts proposed a process to facilitate the codevelopment of written and computable CPGs, referred to as the "integrated process (IP)."1 This paper presents a framework for evaluating the IP based on a combination of vetted evaluation models and expert opinions. This framework combines 3 types of evaluations: process, product, and outcomes. These evaluations assess the value of interdisciplinary expert collaboration in carrying out the IP, the quality, usefulness, timeliness, and acceptance of the guideline, and the guideline's health impact, respectively. A case study is presented that illustrates application of the framework.

An Integrated Process for Co-Developing and Implementing Written and Computable Clinical Practice Guidelines.

The goal of this article is to describe an integrated parallel process for the co-development of written and computable clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) to accelerate adoption and increase the impact of guideline recommendations in clinical practice. From February 2018 through December 2021, interdisciplinary work groups were formed after an initial Kaizen event and using expert consensus and available literature, produced a 12-phase integrated process (IP). The IP includes activities, resources, and iterative feedback loops for developing, implementing, disseminating, communicating, and evaluating CPGs. The IP incorporates guideline standards and informatics practices and clarifies how informaticians, implementers, health communicators, evaluators, and clinicians can help guideline developers throughout the development and implementation cycle to effectively co-develop written and computable guidelines. More efficient processes are essential to create actionable CPGs, disseminate and communicate recommendations to clinical end users, and evaluate CPG performance. Pilot testing is underway to determine how this IP expedites the implementation of CPGs into clinical practice and improves guideline uptake and health outcomes.

Clinical preventive services for patients at risk for cardiovascular disease, National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, 2005-2006.

INTRODUCTION: Clinical preventive services can detect diseases early, when they are most treatable, but these services may not be provided as recommended. Assessing the provision of services to patients at risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) could help identify disparities and areas for improvement. METHODS: We used data on patient visits (n = 21,261) from the National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, 2005-2006, and classified patients with hypertension, hyperlipidemia, obesity, or diabetes as being at risk for CVD. We assessed differences in the provision of preventive services offered to patients who were and who were not at risk for CVD. Further, for those at risk, we compared the demographic characteristics of those who had and who had not been offered services. RESULTS: Patients at risk for CVD received significantly more preventive services compared with those not at risk. For patients at risk for CVD, aspirin therapy was more likely to be recommended to those aged 65 years or older than those aged 45 to 64 years and to men than women. Cholesterol screening was more likely for men and was less likely for patients with Medicare/Medicaid or no insurance than for patients who were insured. Rates of counseling for diet and nutrition, weight reduction, and exercise were low overall, but younger patients received these services more than older patients did. CONCLUSION: Patients at risk for CVD are not all receiving the same level of preventive care, suggesting the need to clarify clinical practice guidelines and provide clinicians with education and support for more effective lifestyle counseling.

Validity and Reliability of the Updated CDC Worksite Health ScoreCard.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability and validity of the updated 2019 CDC Worksite Health ScoreCard (CDC ScoreCard), which includes four new modules. METHODS: We pilot tested the updated instrument at 93 worksites, examining question response concurrence between two representatives from each worksite. We conducted cognitive interviews and site visits to evaluate face validity, and refined the instrument for public distribution. RESULTS: The mean question concurrence rate was 73.4%. Respondents reported the tool to be useful for assessing current workplace programs and planning future initiatives. On average, 43% of possible interventions included in the CDC ScoreCard were in place at the pilot sites. CONCLUSION: The updated CDC ScoreCard is a valid and reliable tool for assessing worksite health promotion policies, educational and lifestyle counseling programs, environmental supports, and health benefits.

A Purchaser's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services: a tool to improve health care coverage for prevention.

INTRODUCTION: In 2005, representatives from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention partnered with the National Business Group on Health and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality to form a work group for developing A Purchaser's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services: Moving Science into Coverage. This guide, designed as a tool for employers, describes recommended clinical preventive services for 46 conditions. The guide includes the scientific evidence and benefits language that employers need to include comprehensive clinical preventive services in their medical benefit plans. METHODS: The work group determined that the guide would address conditions that 1) affected a large percentage of the working population, 2) were costly to control, and 3) had well-defined and accepted recommendations for preventive services. Subject matter experts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Business Group on Health, and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality developed or reviewed statements of scientific evidence for 46 diseases and conditions. RESULTS: The Purchaser's Guide, written for an employer audience, includes descriptions for recommended clinical preventive services and their cost savings, syntheses of supporting evidence, strategies for prioritization, and recommendations to improve the delivery and use of preventive services. Twelve hundred copies were sent to more than 275 members of the National Business Group on Health and other purchasers of health care; training sessions on the Guide were held for 228 business leaders, health benefit consultants, and health plan administrators; and an online version was created through the Web sites of the National Business Group on Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The online version has received more than 260,000 hits since its release. CONCLUSION: In 2007, the National Business Group on Health reported that some Fortune 500 companies will be using the Purchaser's Guide when negotiating their health benefit contracts and developing their health care strategies. Further research is under way to determine whether the Guide influences employers to purchase recommended clinical preventive services.

Strategies for establishing policy, environmental, and systems-level interventions for managing high blood pressure and high cholesterol in health care settings: a qualitative case study.

INTRODUCTION: Policy, environmental, and systems-level interventions are part of a comprehensive approach to managing high blood pressure and high cholesterol, which are key risk factors for heart disease and stroke. In this qualitative case study, we identified clinical practices in health care organizations that used policy, environmental, or systems-level interventions to improve patient outcomes for these conditions. Our 4 objectives were to describe 1) policy, environmental, and systems-level interventions; 2) enabling factors and barriers that affected implementation; 3) methods for evaluating the success of the intervention; and 4) lessons learned from the health care practices that implemented these interventions. METHODS: Through literature review and expert guidance, we identified 34 health care practices that used policy, environmental, and systems-level interventions to manage high blood pressure and high cholesterol. In 2003, we conducted case study interviews with key informants for 9 health care practices that 1) demonstrated improved patient outcomes for blood pressure or cholesterol; 2) implemented the interventions for at least 1 year; and 3) remained committed to sustaining or institutionalizing interventions. We taped and transcribed the interviews and used Centers for Disease Control and Prevention EZ-Text software (www.cdc.gov/hiv/software/ez-text.htm) to code, categorize, and analyze the responses. RESULTS: The health care practices we studied implemented specialized lipid clinics, disease management programs, physician reminder systems, and participation in the Health Resources and Services Administration's Bureau of Primary Care Health Disparities Collaboratives. All practices used comprehensive systems for patient care that were well-defined, measurable, and linked to desirable patient outcomes. Most relied on data systems to identify patients targeted for the interventions and practice areas that needed improvement, and to track the progress of patients and practitioners in meeting goals. Factors contributing to success included support for patient self-management, interventions integrated into the practice's daily work flow to make implementation easier for staff, leadership and staff commitment, and community involvement. CONCLUSION: Comprehensive policy, environmental, and systems-level interventions for patient care can be effective in controlling chronic conditions such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol.

Elements of a Workplace Culture of Health, Perceived Organizational Support for Health, and Lifestyle Risk.

PURPOSE: We investigated the impact of elements of a workplace culture of health (COH) on employees' perceptions of employer support for health and lifestyle risk. DESIGN: We used 2013 and 2015 survey data from the National Healthy Worksite Program, a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)-led initiative to help workplaces implement health-promoting interventions. SETTING: Forty-one employers completed the CDC Worksite Health Scorecard to document organizational changes. PARTICIPANTS: Eight hundred twenty-five employees provided data to evaluate changes in their health and attitudes. MEASURES: We defined elements of a COH as environmental, policy, and programmatic supports; leadership and coworker support; employee engagement (motivational interventions); and strategic communication. Outcomes included scores of employees' perceptions of employer support for health and lifestyle risk derived from self-reported physical activity, nutrition, and tobacco use. ANALYSIS: We estimated effects using multilevel regression models. RESULTS: At the employee level and across time, regression coefficients show positive associations between leadership support, coworker support, employee engagement, and perceived support for health ( P < .05). Coefficients suggest a marginally significant negative association between lifestyle risk and the presence of environmental and policy supports ( P < .10) and significant associations with leadership support in 2015 only ( P < .05). CONCLUSION: Relational elements of COH (leadership and coworker support) tend to be associated with perceived support for health, while workplace elements (environmental and policy supports) are more associated with lifestyle risk. Employers need to confront relational and workplace elements together to build a COH.

Supporting a Culture of Health in the Workplace: A Review of Evidence-Based Elements.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and evaluate the evidence base for culture of health elements. DATA SOURCE: Multiple databases were systematically searched to identify research studies published between 1990 and 2015 on culture of health elements. STUDY INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA: Researchers included studies based on the following criteria: (1) conducted in a worksite setting; (2) applied and evaluated 1 or more culture of health elements; and (3) reported 1 or more health or safety factors. DATA EXTRACTION: Eleven researchers screened the identified studies with abstraction conducted by a primary and secondary reviewer. Of the 1023 articles identified, 10 research reviews and 95 standard studies were eligible and abstracted. DATA SYNTHESIS: Data synthesis focused on research approach and design as well as culture of health elements evaluated. RESULTS: The majority of published studies reviewed were identified as quantitative studies (62), whereas fewer were qualitative (27), research reviews (10), or other study approaches. Three of the most frequently studied culture of health elements were built environment (25), policies and procedures (28), and communications (27). Although all studies included a health or safety factor, not all reported a statistically significant outcome. CONCLUSIONS: A considerable number of cross-sectional studies demonstrated significant and salient correlations between culture of health elements and the health and safety of employees, but more research is needed to examine causality.

An Overview of State Policies Supporting Worksite Health Promotion Programs.

PURPOSE: Worksite health promotion (WHP) programs can reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular disease risk factors. State law can encourage employers and employer-provided insurance companies to offer comprehensive WHP programs. This research examines state law authorizing WHP programs. DESIGN: Quantitative content analysis. SETTING: Worksites or workplaces. SUBJECTS: United States (and the District of Columbia). INTERVENTION: State law in effect in 2013 authorizing WHP programs. MEASURES: Frequency and distribution of states with WHP laws. ANALYSIS: To determine the content of the laws for analysis and coding, we identified 18 policy elements, 12 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Worksite Health ScoreCard (HSC) and 6 additional supportive WHP strategies. We used these strategies as key words to search for laws authorizing WHP programs or select WHP elements. We calculated the number and type of WHP elements for each state with WHP laws and selected two case examples from states with comprehensive WHP laws. RESULTS: Twenty-four states authorized onsite WHP programs, 29 authorized WHP through employer-provided insurance plans, and 18 authorized both. Seven states had a comprehensive WHP strategy, addressing 8 or more of 12 HSC elements. The most common HSC elements were weight management, tobacco cessation, and physical activity. CONCLUSION: Most states had laws encouraging the adoption of WHP programs. Massachusetts and Maine are implementing comprehensive WHP laws but studies evaluating their health impact are needed.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Findings From The National Healthy Worksite Program.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate employers' implementation of evidence-based interventions, and changes in employees' behaviors associated with participating in the national healthy worksite program (NHWP). METHODS: NHWP recruited 100 small and mid-sized employers and provided training and support for 18 months. Outcome measures were collected with an employer questionnaire, an employee survey, and biometric data at baseline and 18 months later. RESULTS: The 41 employers who completed the NHWP implemented significantly more evidence-based interventions and had more comprehensive worksite health promotion programs after participating. Employees made significant improvements in physical activity and nutritional behaviors, but did not significantly improve employee weight. CONCLUSIONS: Training and technical support can help small and mid-sized employers implement evidence-based health interventions to promote positive employee behavior changes. A longer follow up period may be needed to assess whether NHWP led to improvements in clinical outcomes.

Heart healthy and stroke free: successful business strategies to prevent cardiovascular disease.

BACKGROUND: Heart disease and stroke, the principal components of cardiovascular disease (CVD), are the first and third leading causes of death in the United States. In 2002, employers representing 88 companies in the United States paid an average of 18,618 dollars per employee for health and productivity-related costs. A sizable portion of these costs are related to CVD. RESULTS: Employers can yield a 3 dollar to 6 dollar return on investment for each dollar invested over a 2 to 5 year period and improve employee cardiovascular health by investing in comprehensive worksite health-promotion programs, and by choosing health plans that provide adequate coverage and support for essential preventive services. The most effective interventions in worksites are those that provide sustained individual follow-up risk factor education and counseling and other interventions within the context of a comprehensive health-promotion program: (1) screening, health risk assessments, and referrals; (2) environmental supports for behavior change (e.g., access to healthy food choices); (3) financial and other incentives; and (4) corporate policies that support healthy lifestyles (e.g., tobacco-free policies). The most effective practices in healthcare settings include systems that use (1) standardized treatment and prevention protocols consistent with national guidelines, (2) multidisciplinary clinical care teams to deliver quality patient care, (3) clinics that specialize in treating/preventing risk factors, (4) physician and patient reminders, and (5) electronic medical records. CONCLUSIONS: Comprehensive worksite health-promotion programs, health plans that cover preventive benefits, and effective healthcare systems will have the greatest impact on heart disease and stroke and are likely to reduce employers' health and productivity-related costs.

A site-specific literature review of policy and environmental interventions that promote physical activity and nutrition for cardiovascular health: what works?

OBJECTIVE: To review the literature to determine whether policy and environmental interventions can increase people's physical activity or improve their nutrition. DATA SOURCES: The following databases were searched for relevant intervention studies: Medline, Chronic Disease Prevention File, PsychInfo, Health Star, Web of Science, ERIC, the U.S. Department of Transportation, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. STUDY SELECTION: To be included in the review, studies must have (1) addressed policy or environmental interventions to promote physical activity and/or good nutrition; (2) been published from 1970 to October 2003; (3) provided a description of the intervention; and (4) reported behavioral, physiological, or organizational change outcomes. Studies that had inadequate intervention descriptions or that focused on determinants research, individual-level interventions only, the built environment, or media-only campaigns were excluded. DATA EXTRACTION: We extracted and summarized studies conducted before 1990 (n = 65) and during 1990-2003 (n = 64). DATA SYNTHESIS: Data were synthesized by topic (i.e., physical activity or nutrition), by type of intervention (i.e., point-of-purchase), and by setting (i.e., community, health care facility, school, worksite). Current studies published during 1990-2003 are described in more detail, including setting and location, sample size and characteristics, intervention, evaluation period, findings, and research design. Findings are also categorized by type of intervention to show the strength of the study designs and the associations of policy and environmental interventions with physical activity and nutrition. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our review suggest that policy and environmental strategies may promote physical activity and good nutrition. Based on the experimental and quasi-experimental studies in this review, the following interventions provide the strongest evidence for influencing these behaviors: prompts to increase stair use (N = 5); access to places and opportunities for physical activity (N = 6); school-based physical education (PE) with better-trained PE teachers, and increased length of time students are physically active (N = 7); comprehensive work-site approaches, including education, employee and peer support for physical activity, incentives, and access to exercise facilities (N = 5); the availability of nutritious foods (N = 33), point-of-purchase strategies (N = 29); and systematic officer reminders and training of health care providers to provide nutritional counseling (N = 4). Further research is needed to determine the long-term effectiveness of different policy and environmental interventions with various populations and to identify the steps necessary to successfully implement these types of interventions.

Quantitative study of correlates of physical activity in women from diverse racial/ethnic groups: Women's Cardiovascular Health Network Project--introduction and methodology.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity is an important aspect of cardiovascular disease prevention. However, data show a high prevalence of physical inactivity among women and ethnic minority and low-income populations. The purpose of this introduction is to describe the Women's Cardiovascular Health Network Project and implementation of the Women and Physical Activity Survey. The goal of the survey was to identify personal, social environmental, and physical environmental factors that are associated with physical activity status among diverse groups of women. METHODS: Seven universities were funded to study factors that influence physical activity among African-American, Native American, Latina, and white women residing in rural, suburban, and urban living environments. An ecologic model was used to design a quantitative questionnaire that was implemented by telephone or face-to-face interviews in seven sites across the United States. RESULTS: The survey was completed by a total 4122 women, with group totals ranging from 300 to 1000. Results from each site are presented in individual articles in this issue. A summary of results that compare and contrast the groups is presented in an additional report. CONCLUSION: This study provides important information on the assessment of physical activity among women. Results can be used to help improve assessments and to develop more effective policies and interventions for unique groups of women.

Quantitative study of correlates of physical activity in women from diverse racial/ethnic groups: The Women's Cardiovascular Health Network Project--summary and conclusions.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity is an important aspect of cardiovascular disease prevention. However, the populations that show high risk of cardiovascular disease also have high rates of physical inactivity. The purpose of this article was to summarize findings from the Women and Physical Activity Survey, part of the Women's Cardiovascular Health Network Project. The goal of the survey was to identify personal, social environmental, cultural, and physical environmental factors that are associated with physical activity status among a diverse group of women. METHODS: Seven universities were funded to study factors that influence physical activity among white, African American, Latina, and Native American women residing in rural, suburban, and urban living environments. An ecologic model and qualitative data from these population groups were used to design a quantitative questionnaire. The survey was implemented by telephone and face-to-face interviews in seven sites across the United States. RESULTS: Younger age, good general health, and high self-efficacy were the most consistent personal correlates associated with physical activity. Knowing people who exercise and attending religious services were the only social environmental factors with significant associations across population groups. With the exception of safety from crime, no physical environmental factors were consistently related to physical activity. Most groups had intervention suggestions that included access to facilities. CONCLUSION: This study identifies pertinent factors related to physical activity in women and addresses the differences in assessment among the groups. Because each group may have unique characteristics, it is important to assess all levels that could influence physical activity such as personal, social, environmental, and policy. The information can then be used to tailor interventions for the various groups.

Policy and environmental indicators for heart disease and stroke prevention: data sources in two states.

INTRODUCTION: Investigators in South Carolina and Alabama assessed the availability of data for measuring 31 policy and environmental indicators for heart disease and stroke prevention. The indicators were intended to determine policy and environmental support for adopting heart disease and stroke prevention guidelines and selected risk factors in 4 settings: community, school, work site, and health care. METHODS: Research teams used literature searches and key informant interviews to explore the availability of data sources for each indicator. Investigators documented the following 5 qualities for each data source identified: 1) the degree to which the data fit the indicator; 2) the frequency and regularity with which data were collected; 3) the consistency of data collected across time; 4) the costs (time, money, personnel) associated with data collection or access; and 5) the accessibility of data. RESULTS: Among the 31 indicators, 11 (35%) have readily available data sources and 4 (13%) have sources that could provide partial measurement. Data sources are available for most indicators in the school setting and for tobacco control policies in all settings. CONCLUSION: Data sources for measuring policy and environmental indicators for heart disease and stroke prevention are limited in availability. Effort and resources are required to develop and implement mechanisms for collecting state and local data on policy and environmental indicators in different settings. The level of work needed to expand data sources is comparable to the extensive work already completed in the school setting and for tobacco control.

Physical activity patterns among women in rural Alabama.

OBJECTIVE: To explore factors associated with physically active women in a rural community. METHODS: Physical activity patterns were assessed in 585 women in rural Alabama. RESULTS: When combining leisure and nonleisure activities, 68% of women reported > or = 150 minutes per week. Active African American women tended to be younger (AOR 0.97), married (AOR 1.75), less likely to report arthritis (AOR 0.58), or give health (AOR 0.30) or motivational reasons (AOR 0.39) for not being more active; active white women were less likely to report lower health perception (AOR 0.51). CONCLUSION: Ethnic differences in factors associated with higher activity levels need to be considered in physical activity interventions.

Reliability and validity testing of the CDC Worksite Health ScoreCard: an assessment tool to help employers prevent heart disease, stroke, and related health conditions.

OBJECTIVE: To develop, evaluate, and improve the reliability and validity of the CDC Worksite Health ScoreCard (HSC). METHODS: We tested interrater reliability by piloting the HSC at 93 worksites, examining question response concurrence between two representatives from each worksite. We conducted cognitive interviews and site visits to evaluate face validity of items and refined the instrument for general distribution. RESULTS: The mean question concurrence rate was 77%. Respondents reported the tool to be useful, and on average 49% of all possible interventions were in place at the surveyed worksites. The interviews highlighted issues undermining reliability and validity, which were addressed in the final version of the instrument. CONCLUSIONS: The revised HSC is a reasonably valid and reliable tool for assessing worksite health promotion programs, policies, and environmental supports directed at preventing cardiovascular disease.