Optical analysis of glutamate spread in the neuropil.

Fast synaptic communication uses diffusible transmitters whose spread is limited by uptake mechanisms. However, on the submicron-scale, the distance between two synapses, the extent of glutamate spread has so far remained difficult to measure. Here, we show that quantal glutamate release from individual hippocampal synapses activates extracellular iGluSnFr molecules at a distance of >1.5 µm. 2P-glutamate uncaging near spines further showed that alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA)-Rs and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-Rs respond to distant uncaging spots at approximately 800 and 2000 nm, respectively, when releasing the amount of glutamate contained in approximately five synaptic vesicles. The uncaging-induced remote activation of AMPA-Rs was facilitated by blocking glutamate transporters but only modestly decreased by elevating the recording temperature. When mimicking release from neighboring synapses by three simultaneous uncaging spots in the microenvironment of a spine, AMPA-R-mediated responses increased supra-additively. Interfering with extracellular glutamate diffusion through a glutamate scavenger system weakly reduced field synaptic responses but not the quantal amplitude. Together, our data suggest that the neuropil is more permissive to short-range spread of transmitter than suggested by theory, that multivesicular release could regularly coactivate nearest neighbor synapses and that on this scale glutamate buffering by transporters primarily limits the spread of transmitter and allows for cooperative glutamate signaling in extracellular microdomains.

Late Ediacaran life on land: desiccated microbial mats and large biofilm streamers.

The Ediacaran period witnessed transformational change across the Earth-life system, but life on land during this interval is poorly understood. Non-marine/transitional Ediacaran sediments preserve a variety of probable microbially induced sedimentary structures and fossil matgrounds, and the ecology, biogeochemistry and sedimentological impacts of the organisms responsible are now ripe for investigation. Here, we report well-preserved fossils from emergent siliciclastic depositional environments in the Ediacaran of Newfoundland, Canada. These include exquisite, mouldically preserved microbial mats with desiccation cracks and flip-overs, abundant Arumberia-type fossils and, most notably, assemblages of centimetre-to-metre-scale, subparallel, branching, overlapping, gently curving ribbon-like features preserved by aluminosilicate and phosphate minerals, with associated filamentous microfossils. We present morphological, petrographic and taphonomic evidence that the ribbons are best interpreted as fossilized current-induced biofilm streamers, the earliest record of an important mode of life (macroscopic streamer formation) for terrestrial microbial ecosystems today. Their presence shows that late Ediacaran terrestrial environments could produce substantial biomass, and supports recent interpretations of Arumberia as a current-influenced microbial mat fossil, which we here suggest existed on a 'streamer-arumberiamorph spectrum'. Finally, the absence of classic Ediacaran macrobiota from these rocks despite evidently favourable conditions for soft tissue preservation upholds the consensus that those organisms were exclusively marine.

Supporting survivors of campus dating and sexual violence during COVID-19: A social work perspective.

The issue of dating and sexual violence (DSV) on college campuses has received increased attention nationwide as a criminal justice and public health issue. College and university employed social workers play a critical role in preventing and responding to campus DSV through direct clinical services to students as well as prevention through educational programming and training. COVID-19 has negative implications for DSV student victims, as well as service delivery and accessibility. This paper examines the innovative methods used by university employed social work clinicians and educators to meet evolving mental health care needs and continue violence prevention services during COVID-19.

Safety and efficacy of tranexamic acid in children with cerebral palsy undergoing femoral varus derotational osteotomy: a double cohort study.

AIMS: The safety and efficacy of tranexamic acid (TXA) in reducing blood loss after total joint arthroplasty and spinal fusion surgery has been well documented. However, little data exist regarding the effectiveness of intraoperative TXA in children with cerebral palsy (CP). The aim of this double cohort study is to investigate the safety and efficacy of intraoperative TXA in reducing blood loss and transfusion requirements for children with CP undergoing a proximal unilateral or bilateral femoral varus derotational osteotomy (VDRO). PATIENTS AND METHODS: A retrospective review was performed of all paediatric theatre lists between May 2012 and January 2019 for all paediatric (< 16 years old) CP patients who underwent unilateral or bilateral VDRO combined with soft tissue release at our institution. Fifty-one patients were included in our study further subdivided into two individual groups, unilateral and bilateral VDRO. RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were found in demographics such as age, weight, ASA, GMFCS and antiepileptic medication between the groups. However, there were significant statistically differences in TBL and transfusion rates between the groups that received TXA and those that did not, both in unilateral [241 ml (TXA) vs. 369 ml (non-TXA)] and bilateral [287 ml (TXA) vs. 467 ml (non-TXA)] operations. CONCLUSION: TXA successfully reduced TBL (in both TXA subgroups) and the transfusion rates without associated complications. TXA's safety and efficacy should be explored further in adequately powered randomized controlled trials.

Characterisation of peripheral and central components of the rat monoiodoacetate model of Osteoarthritis.

OBJECTIVE: Pain is the main reason patients report Osteoarthritis (OA), yet current analgesics remain relatively ineffective. This study investigated both peripheral and central mechanisms that lead to the development of OA associated chronic pain. DESIGN: The monoiodoacetate (MIA) model of OA was investigated at early (2-6 days post injection) and late (>14 days post injection) time points. Pain-like behaviour and knee histology were assessed to understand the extent of pain due to cartilage degradation. Electrophysiological single-unit recordings were taken from spinal wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons to investigate Diffuse Noxious Inhibitory Controls (DNIC) as a marker of potential changes in descending controls. Immunohistochemistry was performed on dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons to assess any MIA induced neuronal damage. Furthermore, qPCR was used to measure levels of glia cells and cytokines in the dorsal horn. RESULTS: Both MIA groups develop pain-like behaviour but only late phase (LP) animals display extensive cartilage degradation. Early phase animals have a normally functioning DNIC system but there is a loss of DNIC in LP animals. We found no evidence for neuronal damage caused by MIA in either group, yet an increase in IL-1ß mRNA in the dorsal horn of LP animals. CONCLUSION: The loss of DNIC in LP MIA animals suggests an imbalance in inhibitory and facilitatory descending controls, and a rise in the mRNA expression of IL-1ß mRNA suggest the development of central sensitisation. Therefore, the pain associated with OA in LP animals may not be attributed to purely peripheral mechanisms.

The longitudinal impact of probiotic and peanut oral immunotherapy on health-related quality of life.

BACKGROUND: We previously reported that probiotic and peanut oral immunotherapy (PPOIT) was effective at inducing sustained unresponsiveness compared with placebo in a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial. This study evaluated the impact of PPOIT on health-related quality of life (HRQL). METHOD: Fifty-one participants (PPOIT 24; placebo 27) from the PPOIT trial completed Food Allergy Quality of Life Questionnaire (FAQLQ-PF) and Food Allergy Independent Measure (FAIM) at pre-treatment, end-of-treatment and 3 months after end-of-treatment. A total of 42 participants (20 PPOIT; 22 placebo) completed measures at 12 months post-treatment. Changes over time in PPOIT and placebo groups were examined by repeated-measures analysis of variance and paired t tests. RESULTS: Probiotic and peanut oral immunotherapy was associated with significant improvement in FAQLQ-PF (F = 3.63, P = .02), with mean difference 0.8 at 3 months post-treatment (P = .05) and 1.3 at 12 months post-treatment (P = .005), exceeding the 0.5 minimal clinically important difference for FAQLQ-PF. For FAIM, mean difference was 0.5 (P = .03) at 3 months and 0.4 (P = .04) at 12 months post-treatment. In placebo group, post-treatment FAQLQ and FAIM remained unchanged from pretreatment. Improvement in FAQLQ-PF and FAIM scores related specifically to acquisition of sustained unresponsiveness rather than to receiving PPOIT treatment or participation in the trial. CONCLUSIONS: Probiotic and peanut oral immunotherapy has a sustained beneficial effect on psychosocial impact of food allergy at 3 and 12 months after end-of-treatment. Treatment was not associated with reduced HRQL relative to baseline in either PPOIT or placebo groups, indicating that PPOIT was well tolerated and psychological well-being was not negatively impacted. Improved HRQL was specifically associated with acquisition of sustained unresponsiveness.

Delayed sciatic nerve compression following hamstring injury.

A 47-year-old man presented three months post-hamstring injury with posterior thigh and buttock pain, paraesthesia over the lateral part of the leg and dorsum of the foot and a foot drop. MRI identified a hamstring muscle injury with a lesion surrounding 20 cm of the proximal sciatic nerve consistent with an extensive haematoma. Surgical debridement and release was planned; however, his signs spontaneously resolved with rest, physiotherapy and splintage prior to surgery. There have been no other reports of a sciatic nerve lesion with neurological signs resolving without surgical exploration.

Protein disulphide isomerase as a target for nanoparticle-mediated sensitisation of cancer cells to radiation.

Radiation resistance and toxicity in normal tissues are limiting factors in the efficacy of radiotherapy. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have been shown to be effective at enhancing radiation-induced cell death, and were initially proposed to physically enhance the radiation dose deposited. However, biological responses of GNP radiosensitization based on physical assumptions alone are not predictive of radiosensitisation and therefore there is a fundamental research need to determine biological mechanisms of response to GNPs alone and in combination with ionising radiation. This study aimed to identify novel mechanisms of cancer cell radiosensitisation through the use of GNPs, focusing on their ability to induce cellular oxidative stress and disrupt mitochondrial function. Using N-acetyl-cysteine, we found mitochondrial oxidation to be a key event prior to radiation for the radiosensitisation of cancer cells and suggests the overall cellular effects of GNP radiosensitisation are a result of their interaction with protein disulphide isomerase (PDI). This investigation identifies PDI and mitochondrial oxidation as novel targets for radiosensitisation.

The First Record of Aedes (Hulecoeteomyia) japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae) and Its Establishment in Western Canada.

The potential disease-carrying mosquito, Aedes japonicus (Theobald) (Diptera: Culicidae), was identified among larvae collected in suburban Vancouver, BC, in July 2014, and over 200 were found at the same site in February 2015 where it presumably had overwintered in the egg stage. In late May 2015, a female was captured taking a bloodmeal 13 km east of the larval site. This population and those in the Washington and Oregon states are clearly disjunct from those in eastern North America, and their origin, probably from one or more different introductions from Asia, is discussed. Key characters of those in British Columbia are examined and match the description of subspecies japonicus, presumably like the others in North America.

Pharmacology of reflex blinks in the rat: a novel model for headache research.

BACKGROUND: Migraineurs are highly sensitive to the nitric oxide donor glyceryl trinitrate which triggers attacks in many sufferers. In animal studies, glyceryl trinitrate increases neuronal activity in the trigeminovascular pathway and elevates neurotransmitter levels in the brainstem. Many migraineurs also display alterations in blink reflexes, known to involve brainstem circuits. We investigated the effect of GTN on evoked blinks in the anaesthetised rat to determine whether such reflexes may prove useful as the basis for a novel animal model to evaluate potential anti-migraine therapeutic agents. METHOD: In anaesthetised rats the electromyogram associated with the reflex blink evoked by corneal airpuff was recorded. Rats were infused with glyceryl trinitrate, sumatriptan plus glyceryl trinitrate or vehicle control. Changes in the magnitude of the reflex blink-associated electromyogram following these treatments were measured. RESULTS: Glyceryl trinitrate potentiated the evoked reflex blink-associated EMG response from 2 h after infusion. That effect was abolished by simultaneous infusion of sumatriptan with glyceryl trinitrate. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that simple skin surface measurements of evoked electromyographic activity in the rat can reliably detect the evoked blink reflex that can be potentiated by nitric oxide donors. This novel model may be an effective tool for evaluating putative anti-migraine therapeutic agents.

Macrophage-sensory neuronal interaction in HIV-1 gp120-induced neurotoxicity‡.

BACKGROUND: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated sensory neuropathy (SN) is the most frequent neurological complication of HIV disease. Among the probable mechanisms underlying HIV-SN are neurotoxicity induced by the HIV glycoprotein gp120 and antiretroviral therapies (ART). Since HIV-SN prevalence remains high in patients who have not been exposed to toxic ART drugs, here we focused on gp120-mediated mechanisms underlying HIV-SN. METHODS: We hypothesized that a direct gp120-sensory neurone interaction is not the cause of neurite degeneration; rather, an indirect interaction of gp120 with sensory neurones involving macrophages underlies axonal degeneration. Rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cultures were used to assess gp120 neurotoxicity. Rat bone marrow-derived macrophage (BMDM) cultures and qPCR array were used to assess gp120-associated gene expression changes. RESULTS: gp120 induced significant, but latent onset, neurite degeneration until 24 h after application. gp120-neurone interaction occurred within 1 h of application in <10% of DRG neurones, despite neurite degeneration having a global effect. Application of culture media from gp120-exposed BMDMs induced a significant reduction in DRG neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, gp120 significantly increased the expression of 25 cytokine-related genes in primary BMDMs, some of which have been implicated in other painful polyneuropathies. The C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) antagonist, maraviroc, concentration-dependently inhibited gp120-induced tumour necrosis factor-α gene expression, indicating that these effects occurred via gp120 activation of CCR5. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight macrophages in the pathogenesis of HIV-SN and upstream modulation of macrophage response as a promising therapeutic strategy.

Research Trends in the Study of the Relative Biological Effectiveness: A Bibliometric Study.

The relative biological effectiveness is a mathematical quantity first defined in the 1950s. This has resulted in more than 4,000 scientific papers published to date. Yet defining the correct value of the RBE to use in clinical practice remains a challenge. A scientific analysis in the radiation research literature can provide an understanding of how this mathematical quantity has evolved. The purpose of this study is to investigate documents published since 1950 using bibliometric indicators and network visualization. This analysis seeks to provide an assessment of global research activities, key themes, and RBE research within the radiation-related field. It strives to highlight top-performing authors, organizations, and nations that have made major contributions to this research domain, as well as their interactions. The Scopus Collection was searched for articles and reviews pertaining to RBE in radiation research from 1950 through 2023. Scopus and Bibiometrix analytic tools were used to investigate the most productive countries, researchers, collaboration networks, journals, along with the citation analysis of references and keywords. A total of 4,632 documents were retrieved produced by authors originating from 71 countries. Publication trends could be separated in 20-year groupings beginning with slow accrual from 1950 to 1970, an early rise from 1970-1990, followed by a sharp increase in the years 1990s-2010s that matches the development of charged particle therapy in clinics worldwide and opened discussion on the true value of the RBE in proton beam therapy. Since the 2010s, a steady 200 papers, on average, have been published per year. The United States produced the most publications overall (N = 1,378) and Radiation Research was the most likely journal to have published articles related to the RBE (606 publications during this period). J. Debus was the most prolific author (112 contributions, with 2,900 citations). The RBE has captured the research interest of over 7,000 authors in the past decade alone. This study supports that notion that the growth of the body of evidence surrounding the RBE, which started 75 years ago, is far from reaching its end. Applications to medicine have continuously dominated the field, with physics competing with Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology for second place over the decades. Future research can be predicted to continue.

Efficient gene expression from integration-deficient lentiviral vectors in the spinal cord.

Gene transfer to spinal cord cells may be crucial for therapy in spinal muscular atrophy, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spinal cord injury. Lentiviral vectors are efficient for transduction of a variety of cells, but like all integrating vectors they pose a risk of insertional mutagenesis. Integration-deficient lentiviral vectors (IDLVs) remain episomal but retain the transduction efficiency of standard integrating lentiviral vectors, particularly when the episomes are not diluted out through repeated cell division. We have now applied IDLVs for transduction of spinal cord in vitro, in explants and in vivo. Our results demonstrate similar efficiency of eGFP expression from integrating lentiviral vectors and IDLVs in most cell types analyzed, including motor neurons, interneurons, dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons and astroglia. IDLV-mediated expression of pro-glial-cell-derived neurotrophic factor (Gdnf) rescues motor neuron cultures from death caused by removal of exogenous trophic support. IDLVs also mediate efficient RNA interference in DRG neuron cultures. After intraparenchymal injection in the rat and mouse cervical and lumbar regions in vivo, transduction is mainly neuronal, with both motor neurons and interneurons being efficiently targeted. These results suggest that IDLVs could be efficient and safer tools for spinal cord transduction in future therapeutic strategies.

Genomics of pain in osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis (OA) accounts for the majority of the disease burden for musculoskeletal disorders and is one of the leading causes of disability worldwide. This disability is the result not of the cartilage loss that defines OA radiographically, but of the chronic pain whose presence defines symptomatic OA. It is becoming clear that many genes, each with a small effect size, contribute to the risk of developing OA. However, the genetics of OA pain are only just starting to be explored. This review will describe the first genes to have been identified in genomic studies of OA pain, as well as the possible dual roles of genes previously identified in genomic studies of OA in the context of pain. Difficulties associated with attempting to characterise the genetics of OA pain will be discussed and promising future avenues of research into genetic and epigenetic factors affecting OA pain described.

Targeting novel peripheral mediators for the treatment of chronic pain.

Research efforts over the past two decades have helped us better understand the biological mechanisms that lead to chronic pain. Despite this, there has been limited progress in developing novel analgesics to treat sufferers of persistent pain conditions, who may account for as many as one-fifth of the population. A re-evaluation of the strategies used to discover pain-relieving drugs is needed to meet this widespread clinical need. Here, we discuss the merits of pursuing peripherally acting pain mediators. We review the significant clinical evidence that neuronal activity from the periphery is a major contributor to painful symptom production and that peripheral mediators play a substantial role in this aberrant nociceptor activity. We discuss the clinical benefits of blocking individual known mediators and describe our own approach to identify novel mediators.

Interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome: diagnosis and management.

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: The bladder pain syndrome (BPS) is a spectrum of urological symptoms characterised by bladder pain with typical cystoscopic features. Diagnosis and management of this syndrome may be difficult. There is no evidence-based management approach for the diagnosis or treatment of BPS. The objective of this study was to critically review and summarise the evidence relating to the diagnosis and treatment of the bladder pain syndrome. METHODS: A review of published data on the diagnosis and treatment of the BPS was performed. Our search was limited to English-language articles, on the "diagnosis", and "management" or "treatment" of "interstitial cystitis" and the "bladder pain syndrome" in "humans." RESULTS: Frequency, urgency and pain on bladder filling are the most common symptoms of BPS. All urodynamic volumes are reduced in patients with BPS. Associated conditions include psychological distress, depression, history of sexual assault, irritable bowel syndrome and fibromyalgia. Cystoscopy remains the test for definitive diagnosis, with visualisation of haemorrhage on cystoreduction. A multidisciplinary treatment approach is essential in the management of this condition. Orally administered amitriptyline is an efficacious medical treatment for BPS. Intravesical hyaluronic acid and local anaesthetic, with/without hydrodistension are among new treatment strategies. Sacral or pudendal neuromodulation is effective, minimally invasive and safe. Surgery is reserved for refractory cases. CONCLUSIONS: There remains a paucity of evidence for the diagnosis and treatment of BPS. We encountered significant heterogeneity in the assessment of symptoms, duration of treatment and follow up of patients in our literature review.

Molecular fingerprints resolve affinities of Rhynie chert organic fossils.

The affinities of extinct organisms are often difficult to resolve using morphological data alone. Chemical analysis of carbonaceous specimens can complement traditional approaches, but the search for taxon-specific signals in ancient, thermally altered organic matter is challenging and controversial, partly because suitable positive controls are lacking. Here, we show that non-destructive Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) resolves in-situ molecular fingerprints in the famous 407 Ma Rhynie chert fossil assemblage of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, an important early terrestrial Lagerstätte. Remarkably, unsupervised clustering methods (principal components analysis and K-mean) separate the fossil spectra naturally into eukaryotes and prokaryotes (cyanobacteria). Additional multivariate statistics and machine-learning approaches also differentiate prokaryotes from eukaryotes, and discriminate eukaryotic tissue types, despite the overwhelming influence of silica. We find that these methods can clarify the affinities of morphologically ambiguous taxa; in the Rhynie chert for example, we show that the problematic "nematophytes" have a plant-like composition. Overall, we demonstrate that the famously exquisite preservation of cells, tissues and organisms in the Rhynie chert accompanies similarly impressive preservation of molecular information. These results provide a compelling positive control that validates the use of infrared spectroscopy to investigate the affinity of organic fossils in chert.

High-dose femtosecond-scale gamma-ray beams for radiobiological applications.

Objective. In the irradiation of living tissue, the fundamental physical processes involved in radical production typically occur on a timescale of a few femtoseconds. A detailed understanding of these phenomena has thus far been limited by the relatively long duration of the radiation sources employed, extending well beyond the timescales for radical generation and evolution.Approach. Here, we propose a femtosecond-scale photon source, based on inverse Compton scattering of laser-plasma accelerated electron beams in the field of a second scattering laser pulse.Main results. Detailed numerical modelling indicates that existing laser facilities can provide ultra-short and high-flux MeV-scale photon beams, able to deposit doses tuneable from a fraction of Gy up to a few Gy per pulse, resulting in dose rates exceeding 1013Gy/s.Significance. We envisage that such a source will represent a unique tool for time-resolved radiobiological experiments, with the prospect of further advancing radio-therapeutic techniques.

Cysteinyl-leukotrienes induce vascular endothelial growth factor production in human monocytes and bronchial smooth muscle cells.

BACKGROUND: Cysteinyl leukotrienes (cysLTs) are suggested to be implicated in the process of airway remodelling in asthma. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the potential for cysLTs to modulate vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, a growth factor involved in the angiogenesis of airway remodelling. METHODS: VEGF mRNA and protein were quantified by real-time PCR and ELISA, respectively. VEGF promoter activation was assessed using luciferase gene-tagged promoter constructs. RESULTS: We found that LTD(4) induction of VEGF in human monocytes and bronchial smooth muscle cells is cysLT1 dependent. Stimulation of HEK293 cells stably expressing cysLT1 or cysLT2 with cysLTs showed a concentration-dependent activation of the VEGF promoter and a time-dependent increase in VEGF mRNA and protein. For the cysLT1-mediated response, mutations of hypoxia-induced factor-1 (HIF-1) sites failed to reduce cysLT-induced VEGF promoter activation and 5' deletions showed that the proximal region containing one AP-1 and four specificity protein 1 (Sp1) sites was necessary. Pretreatment with inhibitors of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), but not p38, and an overexpression of dominant negative forms of c-Jun, c-Fos or Ras suggested the implication of mitogen-activated protein kinases and AP-1. Mutation of the AP-1-binding element failed to prevent VEGF transactivation suggesting that AP-1 might not act directly on the promoter. Moreover, inhibition of Sp1-dependent transcription by mithramycin completely inhibited VEGF promoter transactivation and VEGF mRNA expression by LTD(4) . Finally, mutations of Sp1 binding elements prevented VEGF promoter transactivation. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Our data indicate for the first time that cysLTs can transcriptionally activate VEGF production via cysLT1 receptors, with the involvement of JNK, ERK, the AP-1 complex and Sp1. These findings suggest that cysLTs may be important in the angiogenic process of airway remodelling and potentially provide a previously unknown benefit of using cysLT1 receptor antagonists in the prevention or treatment of airway remodelling in asthma.

The biological effects of endogenous nerve growth factor on adult sensory neurons revealed by a trkA-IgG fusion molecule.

Evidence suggests that nerve growth factor (NGF) may function as a mediator of some persistent pain states. We have used a synthetic protein, trkA-IgG, to sequester endogenous NGF and block the survival effects of NGF on cultured sensory neurons. We show that administration of trkA-IgG produces a sustained thermal and chemical hypoalgesia and leads to a downregulation of the sensory neuropeptide CGRP (calcitonin gene-related peptide) in treated sensory neurons. Acute administration of the molecule blocks the hyperalgesia that develops with carrageenan-induced inflammation. These data suggest that peripherally produced NGF normally acts to maintain the sensitivity of nociceptive sensory neurons and that, in some inflammatory states, an upregulation of NGF is responsible for alterations in pain-related behaviour. Antagonists of NGF may therefore be of clinical use in treating some chronic pain states.