Predictors of psychopathology response in atypical anorexia nervosa following inpatient treatment: A propensity score matching study of weight suppression and weight loss speed.

INTRODUCTION: This study examines weight suppression (WS) and weight loss speed (WLS) in atypical anorexia nervosa (AN) and its implications for treatment outcomes, compared to people with AN and bulimia nervosa (BN). METHOD: A mixed cross-sectional and prospective design was employed, assessing WS and WLS in people with atypical AN, AN, and BN. Participants were matched for age, gender, age of onset, and disorder duration. Clinical measurements and eating disorders questionnaire (EDE-Q) scores were employed to evaluate the response to treatment. RESULTS: Individuals with atypical individuals exhibited WS patterns similar to AN, distinct from BN. Rapid WLS predicted clinical responses in atypical AN and BN, underscoring its treatment relevance. Atypical AN showed higher eating psychopathology scores than AN or BN, emphasizing the need for a reframed diagnosis. DISCUSSION: Understanding atypical AN's connection to restrictive behaviors and weight loss informs screening, assessment, and treatment practices. Recognition of atypical AN's severity and adoption of tailored approaches are essential for recovery. This study highlights the significance of WS and WLS in atypical AN treatment outcomes, offering insights into clinical practice and care. The proposal to reframe atypical AN as a restrictive eating disorder emphasizes its clinical relevance. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The phenomenon of weight suppression, involving the discrepancy between past highest weight and current weight, has garnered attention due to cultural pressures emphasizing fitness and appearance. This study focuses on its implications in atypical anorexia nervosa, aiming to uncover the relationship between WS, its speed, and treatment outcomes. The investigation contributes insights into tailored interventions for atypical anorexia nervosa and enriches the understanding of this complex disorder's dynamics.

Virtual food exposure with positive mood induction or social support to reduce food anxiety in anorexia nervosa: A feasibility study.

OBJECTIVE: Aversive emotions toward food and the consequences of eating are at the core of anorexia nervosa. Exposure therapy is effective to reduce anxiety and avoidance toward feared stimuli. Based on the inhibitory learning framework, this study examined the feasibility to induce social support or positive mood to enhance the impact of a single session virtual food exposure on food-related anxiety in anorexia nervosa. METHOD: One hundred and forty-five patients were randomized to: (1) virtual food exposure (i.e., baseline condition), (2) virtual food exposure plus positive mood induction (i.e., positive mood condition), or (3) virtual food exposure plus social support (i.e., social support condition). They completed self-report assessments of anxiety toward virtual foods, general anxiety, positive mood, social support, and hunger, before and after virtual food exposure. Number of eye gazes and touches toward foods were recorded during the virtual reality exposure. RESULTS: Patients had lower levels of anxiety toward virtual foods in the positive mood condition, compared to the baseline condition [F(2,141) = 4.36, p = .015; medium effect size]. They also touched food items more often in the baseline condition. No other significant changes were found. DISCUSSION: Virtual food exposure enhanced by positive mood induction seems a feasible approach to strengthen the impact of food exposure in anorexia nervosa. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: This research contributes to the understanding of how patients with anorexia nervosa can be supported to overcome fear and anxiety around food. Virtual reality enables patients to expose themselves to difficult situations (e.g., kitchen with foods of various calorie contents) while experiencing positive stimuli, such as a loving and kind pet or a supportive avatar.

The loneliness factor in eating disorders: Implications for psychopathology and biological signatures.

OBJECTIVES: Eating disorders (ED) are severe psychiatric conditions. While the biological consequences of EDs are well established, including an increase in inflammatory biomarkers, the influence of psychological factors, such as loneliness, has only recently gained attention in research. Loneliness has been associated with more severe psychopathology in ED patients, while its association with inflammatory biomarkers has only been explored in the general population. For these reasons, we aimed to investigate any possible associations between psychological features, trauma, and inflammatory biomarkers with loneliness in people with ED. METHODS: This study examined the interaction between loneliness, eating psychopathology, and biological markers in people with EDs. A group of 97 female patients with various diagnoses of ED was assessed for loneliness, general and eating psychopathology, traumatic history during childhood, and clinical biomarkers such as C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and urinary-free cortisol (UFC). RESULTS: The results indicated that individuals with ED who reported moderate to severe loneliness also displayed greater general psychopathology (p = 0.001), weight concerns (p = 0.007), and physical neglect during childhood (p = 0.006). Furthermore, people with higher levels of loneliness also had higher inflammatory indexes (ESR p = 0.001, CRP p = 0.027) and were positively correlated with markers of stress reaction such as UFC (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The findings underscore the importance of considering loneliness in the assessment of individuals with an ED. We observed notable associations between loneliness and increased psychopathology (both general and specific to eating), as well as higher levels of inflammation and childhood physical neglect. Addressing loneliness may contribute to improving overall well-being and potentially support recovery. This consideration encompasses both psychological and physical factors that interplay in the clinical presentation of individuals.

When time worsens framing: a longitudinal analysis of the psychological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in women with an eating disorder and their healthy sisters.

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly affected individuals with eating disorders (ED), leading to an exacerbation of symptoms worldwide in 2020. However, there is a lack of longitudinal analyses of the psychological burdens experienced by this population. This study aims to longitudinally assess the psychological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in people with ED and their healthy sisters (HS) 1 and 2 years after the onset of the crisis. A sample of 148 individuals, consisting of 73 with ED and 45 HS, was evaluated in spring 2021 and spring 2022 regarding their current psychological and behavioral states. Participants were also asked to reflect on their feelings and behaviors during the 2020 lockdown. General psychopathology, eating disorders, and trauma-related symptoms were evaluated using validated questionnaires. Both groups showed an overall improvement in psychopathological symptoms with time. Individuals with ED exhibited greater improvement compared to their HS, which may be attributed to their initially higher burden. Individuals with ED reported a negative reframe, characterized by internalizing negative emotions and behaviors related to the 2020 lockdown. This longitudinal evaluation revealed two distinct and contrasting effects. Both ED patients and their HS demonstrated psychological improvement over time. However, people with ED experienced a negative reframe that affected their memory of specific life events, subsequently affecting their psychological well-being. These findings shed light on the clinical severity observed in people with ED during these pandemic years.

Revealing motor insensitivity to food in Anorexia Nervosa as a potential mechanism contributing to calorie restriction: A mobile Approach Avoidance Task study.

A change in implicit behavioural tendencies toward foods may contribute to the maintenance of calorie restriction in Anorexia Nervosa (AN). To test this hypothesis, we assessed approach-avoidance tendencies toward different categories of stimuli using a novel mobile version of the approach-avoidance task (AAT). The sample included 66 patients with restrictive AN and 84 healthy controls, all females. All participants performed the AAT in which they were required to approach or avoid stimuli (high-calorie foods, low-calorie foods, and neutral objects) by respectively pulling their phone towards themselves of pushing it away. Both the response time and the force of each movement were collected by means of the smartphone's accelerometer. The results revealed that patients with AN had a reduced tendency to approach food stimuli compared to healthy controls, who instead presented faster and stronger movements in approaching rather than avoiding foods as compared to neutral objects. This finding was particularly pronounced in patients with greater levels of malnutrition. No differences were instead observed comparing high-calorie and low-calorie foods. The observed reduction in the natural tendency to approach food stimuli is consistent with patients' eating behaviour and may contribute to the maintenance of calorie restriction, thus representing a possible target for novel therapeutic approaches.

Enhancing emotional abilities in anorexia nervosa treatment: A rolling-group cognitive remediation and emotional skills training protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is characterised by limited remission rates and emotional dimensions are often neglected. Cognitive remediation and emotional skills training (CREST) protocol aims to address cognitive and emotional factors. This study evaluates the feasibility and effectiveness of a modified rolling-group CREST protocol in an inpatient setting. METHODS: Quasi-experimental design evaluated CREST protocol in a rehabilitation programme. A total of 116 females diagnosed with AN were included, of whom 63 were included in the CREST protocol and 53 in the standard rehabilitation treatment. Various standardized measures were employed to assess psychopathology. Data collection occurred longitudinally, before and after CREST implementation. RESULTS: No significant differences emerged between groups regarding changes in specific eating psychopathology. CREST group exhibited significant improvements in emotion regulation (p = 0.002) and social skills (p = 0.014), besides a reduction in alexithymia (p < 0.001) and cognitive rigidity (p = 0.013). Empathic features remained stable. Participants reported positive perceptions of the CREST intervention. DISCUSSION: The study highlights the potential benefits of integrating emotional training within multidisciplinary intensive treatment for AN. Results emphasise the importance of treatment protocol with more affective and hot-cognition-related interventions, beyond weight-related psychopathology. Implementing a rolling-group CREST protocol in an inpatient setting showed promise in enhancing the emotional abilities of AN patients.

Clinical and psychological factors associated with resilience in patients with schizophrenia: data from the Italian network for research on psychoses using machine learning.

BACKGROUND: Resilience is defined as the ability to modify thoughts to cope with stressful events. Patients with schizophrenia (SCZ) having higher resilience (HR) levels show less severe symptoms and better real-life functioning. However, the clinical factors contributing to determine resilience levels in patients remain unclear. Thus, based on psychological, historical, clinical and environmental variables, we built a supervised machine learning algorithm to classify patients with HR or lower resilience (LR). METHODS: SCZ from the Italian Network for Research on Psychoses (N = 598 in the Discovery sample, N = 298 in the Validation sample) underwent historical, clinical, psychological, environmental and resilience assessments. A Support Vector Machine algorithm (based on 85 variables extracted from the above-mentioned assessments) was built in the Discovery sample, and replicated in the Validation sample, to classify between HR and LR patients, within a nested, Leave-Site-Out Cross-Validation framework. We then investigated whether algorithm decision scores were associated with the cognitive and clinical characteristics of patients. RESULTS: The algorithm classified patients as HR or LR with a Balanced Accuracy of 74.5% (p < 0.0001) in the Discovery sample, and 80.2% in the Validation sample. Higher self-esteem, larger social network and use of adaptive coping strategies were the variables most frequently chosen by the algorithm to generate decisions. Correlations between algorithm decision scores, socio-cognitive abilities, and symptom severity were significant (pFDR < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We identified an accurate, meaningful and generalizable clinical-psychological signature associated with resilience in SCZ. This study delivers relevant information regarding psychological and clinical factors that non-pharmacological interventions could target in schizophrenia.

Food induced distractibility in restrictive anorexia nervosa: Different motor patterns for different foods as revealed by a mouse tracker evaluation.

An altered automatic processing of food stimuli may contribute to the maintenance of calorie restriction in patients with restrictive Anorexia Nervosa (AN-R). The present study aimed to assess whether task-irrelevant food distractors elicited a different interference effect in the motor actions of patients with AN-R compared to healthy controls (HC). 40 patients with acute AN-R and 40 HC performed an irrelevant distractor task in which they were required to perform a reaching movement from a starting point to a green dot, while an irrelevant distractor (a high-calorie food, low-calorie food, or neutral object) was presented in the middle of the screen. Mouse trajectories and response times (RT) were recorded. The analyses conducted on the kinematic variables revealed that while the trajectories of HC veered similarly toward the three categories of stimuli, AN-R patients showed an increased deviation toward low-calorie foods and a reduced deviation toward high-calorie foods compared to neutral objects. No significant results emerged as regards RT. The pattern of responses observed in patients with AN-R (deviation increased toward low-calorie and reduced toward high-calorie) is consistent with their eating habits and may thus represent an implicit mechanism sustaining calorie restriction in patients with AN-R.

Easy to get, difficult to avoid: Behavioral tendencies toward high-calorie and low-calorie food during a mobile approach-avoidance task interact with body mass index and hunger in a community sample.

In recent years, different studies highlighted the importance of assessing behavioral tendencies toward different food stimuli in healthy and pathological samples. However, heterogeneities in experimental approaches and small sample sizes make this literature rather inconsistent. In this study, we used a mobile approach-avoidance task to investigate the behavioral tendencies toward healthy and unhealthy foods compared to neutral objects in a large community sample. The role of some contextual and stable subjective variables was also explored. The sample included 204 participants. The stimuli comprised 15 pictures of unhealthy foods, 15 pictures of healthy foods, and 15 pictures of neutral objects. Participants were required to approach or avoid stimuli by respectively pull or push the smartphone toward or away from themselves. Accuracy and reaction time of each movement were calculated. The analyses were conducted using a generalized linear mixed-effect model (GLMMs), testing the two-way interaction between the type of movement and the stimulus category and the three-way interactions between type of movement, stimulus, and specific variables (BMI, time passed since the last meal, level of perceived hunger). Our results evidenced faster approaching movement toward food stimuli but not toward neutrals. An effect of BMI was also documented: as the BMI increased, participants became slower in avoiding unhealthy compared to healthy foods, and in approaching healthy compared to unhealthy stimuli. Moreover, as hunger increased, participants became faster in approaching and slower in avoiding healthy compared to unhealthy stimuli. In conclusion, our results show an approach tendency toward food stimuli, independent from caloric content, in the general population. Furthermore, approach tendencies to healthy foods decreased with increasing BMI and increased with perceived hunger, indicating the possible influence of different mechanisms on eating-related behavioral tendencies.

Beyond body image: what body schema and motor imagery can tell us about the way patients with anorexia nervosa experience their body.

AIM: Recent evidence suggests that the body image disturbance often observed in patients with anorexia nervosa also extends to the body schema. According to the embodiment approach, the body schema is not only involved in motor execution, but also in tasks that only require a mental simulation of a movement such as motor imagery, mental rotation of bodies, and visuospatial perspective-taking. The aim of the present study was to assess the ability of patients with anorexia to mentally simulate movements. METHODS: The sample included 52 patients with acute anorexia and 62 healthy controls. All participants completed three tests of explicit motor imagery, a mental rotation test and a test of visuospatial perspective-taking. RESULTS: Patients with anorexia nervosa, with respect to controls, reported greater difficulties in imagining movements according to a first-person perspective, lower accuracy in motor imagery, selective impairment in the mental rotation of human figures, and reduced ability in assuming a different egocentric visuospatial perspective. CONCLUSION: These results are indicative of a specific alteration in motor imagery in patients with anorexia nervosa. Interestingly, patients' difficulties appear to be limited to those tasks which specifically rely on the body schema, while patients and controls performed similarly in the 3D objects mental rotation task.

Volume and complexity of the thalamus in Anorexia Nervosa: An exploratory evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: Recent neuroscientific findings have highlighted the role of the thalamus in several cognitive functions, ranging from perception to cognitive flexibility, memory, and body representation. Since some of these functions may be involved in the pathophysiology of Anorexia Nervosa (AN), this study aims at exploring thalamic structure in different phases of the disorder. METHOD: The sample included 38 patients with acute AN, 20 patients who fully recovered from AN (recAN), and 38 healthy controls (HC), all female. All participants underwent high-resolution MRI. The volumes of the whole thalamus and 25 thalamic nuclei were extracted using an automated segmentation algorithm, and thalamic fractal dimension was estimated using the calcFD toolbox. RESULTS: Patients with acute AN, compared to HC, displayed reduced thalamic volume and complexity both at the whole level and at the level of specific nuclei. In patients recAN, instead, alterations were observed only at the level of the right laterodorsal and central lateral nuclei. CONCLUSIONS: In the acute phase of the disorder patients with AN present a widespread reduction in thalamic volume and complexity. However, these alterations seem to normalise almost completely following weight restoration, thus suggesting the involvement of malnutrition-related mechanisms.

Linguistic embodiment in typical and atypical anorexia nervosa: Evidence from an image-word matching task.

OBJECTIVE: The integration of sensory, motor, and cognitive systems is embodied cognition, according to which mind and body are not separate and distinct, and our body (and our brain, as part of the body) contributes to determining our mental and cognitive processes. In spite of limited data available, Anorexia nervosa (AN) appears as a condition in which embodied cognition is altered, in particular, if we consider bodily sensations and visuospatial information processing. We aimed to evaluate the ability to correctly identify body parts and actions in both full (AN) and atypical AN (AAN), looking at the role of the underweight status. METHOD: A group of 143 females (AN = 45, AAN = 43, unaffected women = 55) was enrolled. All participants performed a linguistic embodied task to evaluate the association between a picture-showing a bodily action-and a written verb. Additionally, a subsample of 24 AN participants performed a retest after stable weight recovery. RESULTS: Both AN and AAN demonstrated an abnormal ability to evaluate the picture-written verb associations, especially if the involved bodily effectors were the same in both stimuli (i.e., pictorial and verbal) and needed a longer response time. CONCLUSIONS: Specific embodied cognition linked to body schema seems to be impaired in persons with AN. The longitudinal analysis showed a difference between AN and AAN only in the underweight condition, suggesting the presence of an abnormal linguistic embodiment. More attention should be devoted to embodiment during AN treatment to improve bodily cognition, which might, in turn, diminish body misperception.

Strategic avoidance of food stimuli in patients with restrictive anorexia nervosa: An eye-tracking evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: A biased attentional processing of food stimuli may represent a disorder maintenance factor in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN). The present study aimed at investigating the temporal course of attentional deployment towards both high-calorie and low-calorie foods in patients with AN using eye-tracking. METHOD: Fifty-two patients with restrictive AN and 54 healthy controls (HC) performed a dot-probe task while their gaze was recorded with an eye-tracking system. The direction bias (percentage of trials in which the gaze was directed towards the food at first fixation, 500, and 1500 ms), and the duration bias (percentage of time spent looking at the food) were extracted. RESULTS: Regarding the direction bias, a group by time interaction emerged (F = 3.29, p = 0.038): while in the control group the bias continued to increase over the course of the trial, patients with AN showed a reduction of the bias between the 500 and 1500 ms. No group differences were observed on the duration bias. CONCLUSIONS: In advanced stages of attentional deployment patients with AN start to differ from HC by diverting their attention away from food stimuli, a strategic process that may contribute to food avoidance and calorie restriction.

Understanding dropout and non-participation in follow-up evaluation for the benefit of patients and research: evidence from a longitudinal observational study on patients with eating disorders.

Treatment outcomes in eating disorders (EDs) are still an open field for clinicians and researchers. Besides difficulties in egosyntonic-linked treatment engagements, dropout is one of the most crucial elements that cause a reduction in the treatment efficacy. Thus, the aim of this study is to evaluate factors that could contribute to high dropout rates and non-participation in follow-up evaluation in patients with ED. This study used a large sample of patients from a specialized ED ward and day hospital (DH). A sample of 428 individuals was recruited for this study. Psychological and demographic data were collected at the time of hospitalization and discharge from the facilities. These data were used to explore a possible link between dropout and follow-up non-participation. Specially, the random forest was used to rank demographic and psychological features in importance and evaluate the top results with regression analyses for statistical significance. A dropout rate of 12.14% during inpatient and DH treatment was found. Anger-hostility and general psychopathology were found to be predictors of dropout during treatment, while the duration of the hospitalization predicted non-participation at the six-month follow-up. Specific psychological features should be considered before and during treatments for patients with EDs to reduce dropout rates. The duration of the hospitalization should also be evaluated as a relevant healthcare element that could affect engagement and, accordingly, outcome.

Preparing for the next pandemic by understanding the impact of COVID-19 mitigation measures on patients with eating Disorders: observations from an inpatient setting.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic overwhelmed eating disorder (ED) services worldwide. Data suggests a worsening of psychopathology and an increased request for specialised treatments. Still, the studies are mostly based on experimental protocols with underpowered short-term opportunistic experimental designs. Thus, this study aims to assess the clinical and psychological differences between patients admitted to a specialised ED Unit before and after the COVID-19 breakout. METHODS: Consecutive patients admitted from June 2014 to February 2022 in a specialised EDs Unit were enrolled. A total sample of 498 individuals was enrolled in this retrospective study, collecting demographic and psychopathological data at admission. RESULTS: An increase in the admission of patients with anorexia nervosa has been reported, with lower age and higher levels of specific and general psychopathology, especially linked to body uneasiness. CONCLUSIONS: Results are put into the context of the preparation for the next pandemic that may require similar mitigation measures as COVID-19 to ensure the impact on existing and new patients. Covering an extended period with validated tools, our results might help psychiatric services to reassess their treatment pathways after the pandemic, helping clinicians to delineate future treatment interventions.KEYPOINTSAfter the COVID-19 breakdown, there was an increase in the admission of patients with anorexia nervosa to specialised services.More severe psychopathology was not accompanied by lower body mass index.Specialised eating disorders services should face sudden changes in patients' requests for treatment.Understanding the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic and the resulting mitigation measures taken can lead to better preparations for the next pandemic.

Cortical complexity estimation using fractal dimension: A systematic review of the literature on clinical and nonclinical samples.

Fractal geometry has recently been proposed as a useful tool for characterizing the complexity of the brain cortex, which is likely to derive from the recurrence of sulci-gyri convolution patterns. The index used to describe the cortical complexity is called fractal dimensional (FD) and was employed by different research exploring the neurobiological correlates of distinct pathological and nonpathological conditions. This review aims to describe the literature on the application of this index, summarize the heterogeneities between studies and inform future research on this topic. Sixty-two studies were included in the systematic review. The main research lines concern neurodevelopment, aging and the neurobiology of specific psychiatric and neurological disorders. Overall, the included papers indicate that cortical complexity is likely to reduce during aging and in various pathological processes affecting the brain. Nevertheless, the high heterogeneity between studies strongly prevents the possibility of drawing conclusions. Further research considering this index besides other morphological values is needed to better clarify the role of FD in characterizing the cortical structure.

Urinary free cortisol and childhood maltreatments in eating disorder patients: New evidence for an ecophenotype subgroup.

INTRODUCTION: Increasing neurobiological evidence has suggested the presence of a specific ecophenotype in people with eating disorders (EDs) linked to early maltreatment. Urinary-free cortisol could strengthen the data and show specific relationships between maltreated subtypes and the hormonal profiles of patients with EDs. This study aims to evaluate the presence of different urinary cortisol in drug-free patients in the acute phase of the disorder and its relationship with childhood maltreatment. METHODS: A sample of 78 female patients with ED is included in the study. Childhood maltreatment history and 24-h urinary free cortisol (24-h UFC) are evaluated at a specialised ED ward admission. RESULTS: Patients with a maltreatment history show more blunted 24-h UFC levels than peers without childhood maltreatment (p = 0.001). Regression analysis showed that child abuse is a predictor of the reduction of 24-h UFC (p < 0.001), with physical abuse (p = 0.011) and sexual abuse (p = 0.050) that could have a more specific impact than other maltreatment subtypes. DISCUSSION: Childhood maltreatment should be evaluated in ED patients due to its biological impact on the hormonal stress axis, which could impair the ability of patients to respond to standardized ED treatment.

Alexithymia, dissociation and emotional regulation in eating disorders: Evidence of improvement through specialized inpatient treatment.

The research into emotional regulation in eating disorders (EDs) has shown specific impairments and maladaptive coping strategies in patients, and there is an increasing interest in the role of the emotional domain in the treatment outcome. This study aims to evaluate the effect of a specialized inpatient treatment characterized by both an intensive and comprehensive standardized multidisciplinary programme based on cognitive-behavioural therapy and a flexible and personalized component implemented by third-wave interventions. A cohort of 67 female ED patients (anorexia nervosa = 28, bulimia nervosa = 28 and binge eating disorder = 11) underwent an evaluation of emotional regulation difficulties, alexithymia and dissociative symptomatology at admission to a specialized ED ward. The psychological modifications were subsequently re-evaluated upon discharge, after an inpatients treatment of 60 days, examining specific changes in the specific psychopathology. A significant improvement after specialized ED treatment was shown in alexithymia, emotional regulation difficulties and dissociation symptoms, with higher effect sizes in patients with higher alexithymia scores. As regards the specific effect of the psychological improvement, changes into alexithymia scores have shown specific correlations with ED psychopathology (p < 0.010) and with difficulties in emotional regulation (p < 0.010) in patients with higher alexithymia levels at admission. Emotional regulation and dissociation should therefore be evaluated in ED patients and may be improved with specific therapeutic approaches, while alexithymia remains a clinical trait, even with a significant reduction.

One year of COVID-19 pandemic on patients with eating disorders, healthy sisters, and community women: evidence of psychological vulnerabilities.

PURPOSE: The COVID-19 pandemic has been a psychological burden worldwide, especially for individuals with eating disorders (EDs). In addition, the healthy sisters of patients with EDs are known to present specific psychological vulnerabilities. This study evaluates differences between the general population, patients with EDs, and their healthy sisters. METHOD: A group of 233 participants (91 patients with EDs, 57 of their healthy sisters and 85 community women) was enrolled in an online survey on general and specific psychopathology 1 year after the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. The survey examined associations between posttraumatic symptoms and depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsiveness, interpersonal sensitivity, and eating-related concerns. RESULTS: Clinically relevant scores for posttraumatic disorders were found in patients with EDs. Healthy sisters scored similarly to patients for avoidance. Regression analysis showed specific associations between interpersonal sensitivity and posttraumatic symptomatology in patients and healthy sisters, but not in community women. CONCLUSION: The psychological burden in patients with EDs is clinically relevant and linked to interpersonal sensitivity, obsessive-compulsiveness, and global symptom severity. Differences between patients, healthy sisters, and community women are discussed regarding vulnerability factors for EDs. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III: evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control analytic studies.

Time evaluation and its accuracy in eating disorders: differences in relation to interoceptive awareness.

PURPOSE: Time evaluation has been poorly studied in eating disorder (ED) patients despite its relationship with body awareness, which is a core psychopathological feature in EDs and is influenced by impulsivity, interoception, and working memory. This study aims to evaluate time estimation and its accuracy across the ED spectrum in connection with specific and general psychopathology. METHODS: A group of 215 women was enrolled in a computerized task involving the estimation of 1-min intervals. Impulsivity and body awareness constructs (self-monitoring, depersonalization, interoceptive deficit) were evaluated and examined for significant correlations with time estimation and the accuracy of the measure. RESULTS: Patients with EDs showed an impaired ability to estimate time, with an accuracy that positively correlated with compulsive self-monitoring (p = 0.03). Differences between diagnostic subgroups showed an overestimation of time in anorexia nervosa patients and an underestimation of time in binge eating disorder patients, whose time estimation was also less accurate. CONCLUSION: The relationship between time estimation and compulsive self- monitoring might corroborate the presence of an imbalanced integration of information in patients with EDs that was not present in the community women included in the study. Time perception should be further evaluated in the ED field, and longitudinal changes due to psychopathological recovery or BMI changes should be examined. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III: Evidence obtained from a well-designed cohort or case-control analytic study.