Achieving a high coverage--the challenge of controlling HIV spread in heroin users.

In China, the national plan to open 1000 methadone clinics over a five-year period provides a unique opportunity to assess the impacts of harm reduction in a country with concentrated HIV epidemic amongst heroin users. To track the progress of this public health response, data were collected from the first methadone clinic in Liuzhou, Guangxi, a province with a high HIV prevalence. In the first 15 months of its operation, a cumulative total of 488 heroin users, 86% of which male, had joined the programme. The first dose of methadone was given efficiently at a median of 2 days after registration. Of the 240 heroin users attending the clinic in August 2006, 61% took methadone for four days or more each week. The number of active methadone users, however, leveled off at around 170 after the first two months, despite the availability of capacity to deliver more services. The reasons for this observation are: firstly, the provision of one single service that may not be convenient to all heroin users; and secondly, concerns of heroin users who may feel insecure to come forward. As broad coverage is essential in ultimately reducing HIV risk, a low threshold approach is crucial, which should be supported by the removal of social obstacles and a refinement of the administrative procedures.

The Burden of Hypertension and Associated Risk for Cardiovascular Mortality in China.

IMPORTANCE: Hypertension is a leading cause of premature death in China, but limited evidence is available on the prevalence and management of hypertension and its effect on mortality from cardiovascular disease (CVD). OBJECTIVES: To examine the prevalence, diagnosis, treatment, and control of hypertension and to assess the CVD mortality attributable to hypertension in China. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: This prospective cohort study (China Kadoorie Biobank Study) recruited 500 223 adults, aged 35 to 74 years, from the general population in China. Blood pressure (BP) measurements were recorded as part of the baseline survey from June 25, 2004, to August 5, 2009, and 7028 deaths due to CVD were recorded before January 1, 2014 (mean duration of follow-up: 7.2 years). Data were analyzed from June 9, 2014, to July 17, 2015. EXPOSURES: Prevalence and diagnosis of hypertension (systolic BP ≥140 mm Hg, diastolic BP ≥90 mm Hg, or receiving treatment for hypertension) and treatment and control rates overall and in various population subgroups. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Cox regression analysis yielded age- and sex-specific rate ratios for deaths due to CVD comparing participants with and without uncontrolled hypertension, which were used to estimate the number of CVD deaths attributable to hypertension. RESULTS: The cohort included 205 167 men (41.0%) and 295 056 women (59.0%) with a mean (SD) age of 52 (10) years for both sexes. Overall, 32.5% of participants had hypertension; the prevalence increased with age (from 12.6% at 35-39 years of age to 58.4% at 70-74 years of age) and varied substantially by region (range, 22.7%-40.7%). Of those with hypertension, 30.5% had received a diagnosis from a physician; of those with a diagnosis of hypertension, 46.4% were being treated; and of those treated, 29.6% had their hypertension controlled (ie, systolic BP <140 mm Hg; diastolic BP <90 mm Hg), resulting in an overall control rate of 4.2%. Even among patients with hypertension and prior CVD, only 13.0% had their hypertension controlled. Uncontrolled hypertension was associated with relative risks for CVD mortality of 4.1 (95% CI, 3.7-4.6), 2.6 (95% CI, 2.4-2.9) and 1.9 (95% CI, 1.8-2.0) at ages 35 to 59, 60 to 69, and 70 to 79 years, respectively, and accounted for about one-third of deaths due to CVD (approximately 750 000) at 35 to 79 years of age in 2010. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: About one-third of Chinese adults in this national cohort population had hypertension. The levels of diagnosis, treatment, and control were much lower than in Western populations, and were associated with significant excess mortality.

Temporal trends of main reproductive characteristics in ten urban and rural regions of China: the China Kadoorie biobank study of 300 000 women.

BACKGROUND: Chinese women's reproductive patterns have changed significantly over the past several decades. However, relatively little is known about the pace and characteristics of these changes either overall or by region and socioeconomic status. METHODS: We examined the cross-sectional data from the China Kadoorie Biobank cohort study that recruited 300 000 women born between 1930 and 1974 (mean age: 51 years) from 10 socially diverse urban and rural regions of China. Temporal trends in several self-reported reproductive characteristics, and effect modification of these trends by area and education (as a surrogate for socioeconomic status), were examined. RESULTS: The overall mean age at menarche was 15.4 (standard deviation 1.9) years, but decreased steadily over the 45 birth cohorts from 16.1 to 14.3 years, except for an anomalous increase of ∼1 year for women exposed to the 1958-61 famine in early adolescence. Similarly large changes were seen for other characteristics: mean parity fell (urban: 4.9 to 1.1; rural: 5.9 to 1.4); mean age at first birth increased (urban: 19.0 to 25.9 years; rural: 18.3 to 23.8 years); and birth spacing increased after 1980 to over 5 years. Breastfeeding declined after 1950 in urban and, after 1980, in rural women; and 68% of urban and 48% of rural women experienced a terminated pregnancy. Mean age at menopause increased from 47.9 to 49.3 years. CONCLUSIONS: There have been striking changes in reproductive factors over time and between areas among these Chinese women. Their effects on major chronic diseases should be investigated.