A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial of an Integrated In-person and Mobile Phone Delivered Counseling and Text Messaging Intervention to Reduce HIV Transmission Risk among Male Sex Workers in Chennai, India.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) are at increased risk for HIV infection in India, particularly those who engage in transactional sex with other men (i.e., male sex workers; MSW). Despite the need, HIV prevention efforts for Indian MSW are lacking. As in other settings, MSW in India increasingly rely on the use of mobile phones for sex work solicitation. Integrating mobile phone technology into an HIV prevention intervention for Indian MSW may mitigate some of the challenges associated with face-to face approaches, such as implementation, lack of anonymity, and time consumption, while at the same time proving to be both feasible and useful. This is a pilot randomized controlled trial to examine participant acceptability, feasibility of study procedures, and preliminary efficacy for reducing sexual risk for HIV. MSW (N = 100) were equally randomized to: (1) a behavioral HIV prevention intervention integrating in-person and mobile phone delivered HIV risk reduction counseling, and daily, personalized text or voice messages as motivating "cognitive restructuring" cues for reducing condomless anal sex (CAS); or (2) a standard of care (SOC) comparison condition. Both groups received HIV counseling and testing at baseline and 6-months, and completed ACASI-based, behavioral and psychosocial assessments at baseline, 3, and 6 months. Mixed-effects regression procedures specifying a Poisson distribution and log link with a random intercept and slope for month of follow-up was estimated to assess the intervention effect on the primary outcomes: (1) CAS acts with male clients who paid them for sex, and (2) CAS acts with male non-paying sexual partners-both outcomes assessed over the past month. The intervention was both feasible (98% retention at 6-months) and acceptable (>96% of all intervention sessions attended); all intervention participants rated the intervention as "acceptable" or "very acceptable." A reduction in the reported number of CAS acts with male clients who paid them for sex in the past month was seen in both study conditions. MSW in the intervention condition reported a faster rate of decline in the number of CAS acts with male clients in the past month from the baseline to both the 3-month (B = -1.20; 95% CI -1.68, -0.73; p < 0.0001) and 6-month (B = -2.44; 95% CI -3.35, -1.53; p < 0.00001) assessment visits compared to the SOC condition. Post-hoc contrasts indicated that, at 3 months, participants in the intervention condition reported 1.43 (SD = 0.29) CAS acts with male clients in the past month compared to 4.85 (SD = 0.87) in the control condition (p = 0.0003). Furthermore, at 6 months, the intervention condition participants reported 0.24 (SD = 0.09) CAS acts with male clients in the past month compared to 2.79 (SD = 0.79) in the control condition (p < 0.0001). Findings are encouraging and provide evidence of feasibility and acceptability, and demonstrate initial efficacy (for reducing sexual risk for HIV) of a behavioral HIV prevention intervention for Indian MSW that combines daily, personalized text or voice messages with mobile phone-delivered sexual risk reduction counseling and skills building. Future testing of the intervention in a fully powered randomized controlled efficacy trial is warranted.

Transactional sex and the challenges to safer sexual behaviors: a study among male sex workers in Chennai, India.

Male sex workers (MSW) are a significant but invisible population in India who are at risk for HIV/sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Few studies from India have documented HIV risk factors and motivations for sex work in this population. Between 2013 and 2014, a community-based convenience sample of 100 MSW in Chennai (south India) completed a baseline risk assessment as part of a behavioral intervention. Participants were ≥18 years, and reported current sex work. We report medians and proportions, and Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney and chi-square tests are used to examine differences between sex work and sexual behavior measures by income source. Participants were engaged in sex work for 5.0 years (IQR = 2.3-10.0), and earned 3000 (IQR = 2000-8000) Rupees (<50 USD) per month from sex work. Sixty-four percent reported ever testing for HIV and 20.2% for any STI. The most common reasons for starting sex work were money (83.0%) and pleasure (56.0%). Compared to participants with an additional source of income, those whose only source of income was sex work reported more male clients in the past month (10.0 vs. 6.0, p = .017), as well as more condomless anal sex acts with male clients (8.0 vs. 5.0, p = .008). Nearly 70.0% were offered more money not to use a condom during sex with a client, and 74.2% reported accepting more money not to use a condom. Three-quarters reported having experienced difficulty using condoms with clients. MSW in India engage in high levels of sexual risk for HIV/STIs. Money appears to be a driving factor for engaging in sex work and condomless sex with clients. HIV prevention interventions with MSW should focus on facilitating skills that will support their ability to negotiate sexual safety in the context of monetary disincentives.

Development and Open Pilot Trial of an HIV-Prevention Intervention Integrating Mobile-Phone Technology for Male Sex Workers in Chennai, India.

In India men who have sex with men and engage in sex work (i.e., male sex workers; MSW) have a high risk of transmitting HIV. Globally, sex workers have become more spatially mobile due to advances in mobile-phone technology. In 2012 in-depth qualitative feedback was garnered from 40 interviews with MSW and four focus groups with 35 key informants (KIs) who had expert knowledge of the local MSW community to inform the design of an HIV-prevention intervention among MSW in Chennai, India. All MSW were recruited during outreach by employees of a Chennai-based organization for MSM (men who have sex with men). The data were analyzed using a descriptive qualitative approach. MSW and KIs discussed the need for intervention content that went beyond basic HIV psychoeducation. They emphasized the importance of addressing psychological distress, alcohol-related risk, and sexual communication skills. Concerns were raised about confidentiality, privacy, and scheduling. Participants endorsed a combination of in-person and mobile-phone-delivered sessions as well as the integration of mobile-phone messaging. These findings served as the basis for the development of a theoretically driven, manual-based intervention incorporating mobile phones. An open pilot assessed the feasibility and acceptability of the intervention with eight MSW. Assessments and HIV testing were administered at baseline, 3, and 6 months post-baseline. Exit interviews were conducted at the conclusion of the intervention. Retention for session attendance and assessment follow-up was 100 %. There was a high level of acceptability for the format, structure, and content. These data show initial promise, feasibility, and acceptability of the intervention.

Garnering an in-depth understanding of men who have sex with men in Chennai, India: a qualitative analysis of sexual minority status and psychological distress.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) in India are a hidden and largely understudied population, and have an HIV prevalence 17 times higher than that of the general Indian population. Experiences of social marginalization and negative psychosocial conditions occur concurrent to HIV risk among Indian MSM. To better understand the contextual variables driving HIV risk and inform intervention development, five focus groups (n = 46) and nine key informant interviews were conducted with 55 MSM in Chennai in 2010. NVivo software was used to code the transcripts, and data were analyzed using qualitative descriptive analysis methodology. Participants described sources of psychological distress and low self-worth related to gender non-conformity and sexual minority status. These included stigma from society, pressure to marry, lack of familial acceptance, childhood sexual abuse, and the imperative to keep sexual minority status a secret. Participants' personal evaluations revealed that self-acceptance may be an important resilience factor that can shield these psychosocial and HIV risk factors. In promoting health-seeking behavioral changes for Indian MSM at an individual level, our findings point to the potential strength of strategies that focus on self-acceptance of one's sexual minority identity to foster better psychosocial and overall health.

Longitudinal impact of stressful life events on HIV-related risk and psychosocial problems among MSM in Chennai and Mumbai, India.

BACKGROUND: Studies show that stressful life events (SLE) (e.g., discrimination, financial problems) can lead to psychosocial problems and exacerbate condomless anal sex (CAS) without protection via pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among men who have sex with men. However, few studies have examined this relationship among men who have sex with men in India, and none have examined this longitudinally. METHODS: As a part of an HIV-prevention intervention, 608 MSM from Chennai and Mumbai, India, completed behavioral surveys at baseline, 4, 8, and 12 months. We used longitudinal generalized estimating equations (GEE) modeling to examine the relationship between SLE and its severity and subsequent psychosocial problems, CAS, and history of diagnosed sexually transmitted infection (STI). All models are adjusted for age, sexual identity, intervention arm, human immunodeficiency virus status, and recruitment city. RESULTS: The number of SLE and their corresponding perceived impact score remained consistent at each time point. In multivariable GEE models, the number of SLE was predictive of CAS, depression, and harmful drinking. Similarly, the ratio of the impact of SLE was predictive of CAS, depression, and diagnosed STI. However, harmful drinking was not predictive in this model. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide evidence that can inform future interventions, which can be used to enhance self-acceptance, coping skills, and other forms of resiliency.

General Health Care Utilization in the Past 3 Months Increased Recent and Routine HIV and STI Testing Among Male Sex Workers in Chennai, India.

In India, male sex workers (MSW) are among the most vulnerable populations at higher risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and may seek health care services less frequently. A community-based sample of 100 MSW in Chennai, India, completed a baseline assessment as part of a behavioral intervention to reduce the acquisition and transmission of HIV. MSW reported an average of 12.2 (SD = 17.7) condomless anal sex acts with male clients in the past month, yet only 48% accessed health care services in the past 3 months. In a multivariable model adjusted for relevant covariates, MSW who accessed health care services in the past 3 months were more likely to be tested for HIV/STIs and report routine HIV testing over the past 12 months. Future HIV prevention efforts among MSW in India should incorporate referrals for accessing general health care services and identify specific barriers to health care engagement among this group.

Strengthening resilience to reduce HIV risk in Indian MSM: a multicity, randomised, clinical efficacy trial.

BACKGROUND: Men who have sex with men (MSM) in India are extremely marginalised and stigmatised, and therefore experience immense psychosocial stress. As current HIV prevention interventions in India do not address mental health or resilience to these stressors, we aimed to evaluate a resilience-based psychosocial intervention in the context of HIV and sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention. METHODS: We did a multicity, randomised, clinical efficacy trial in Chennai (governmental tuberculosis research institute) and Mumbai (non-governmental organisation for MSM), India. Inclusion criteria were MSM, aged 18 years or older, who were at risk of HIV acquisition or transmission, defined as having any of the following in the 4 months before screening: anal sex with four or more male partners (protected or unprotected), diagnosis of an STI, history of transactional sex activity, or condomless anal sex with a man who was of unknown HIV status or serodiscordant. Participants were required to speak English, Tamil (in Chennai), or Hindi (in Mumbai) fluently. Eligible individuals were randomly assigned (1:1) to either a resilience-based psychosocial HIV prevention intervention, consisting of group (four sessions) and individual (six sessions) counselling alongside HIV and STI voluntary counselling and testing, or a standard-of-care control comprising voluntary counselling and testing alone. The primary outcomes were number of condomless anal sex acts with male partners during the past month (at baseline and 4 months, 8 months, and 12 months after randomisation), and incident bacterial STIs (at 12 months after randomisation). Resilience-related mediators included self-esteem, self-acceptance, and depression. Recruitment is now closed. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02556294. FINDINGS: Between Sept 4, 2015, and June 28, 2018, we enrolled 608 participants; 305 (50%) were assigned to the psychosocial intervention condition and 303 (50%) were assigned to the control condition. 510 (84%) of 608 men completed an assessment at 4 months after randomisation, 483 (79%) at 8 months, and 515 (85%) at 12 months. 512 (99%) of 515 men had STI data from the 12-month assessment. The intervention condition had a 56% larger reduction in condomless anal sex acts (95% CI 35-71; p<0·0001) from baseline to 4-month follow-up, 72% larger reduction (56-82; p<0·0001) from baseline to 8-month follow-up, and 72% larger reduction (53-83; p<0·0001) from baseline to 12-month follow-up, compared with the standard-of-care control condition (condition by time interaction; χ2=40·29, 3 df; p<0·0001). Improvements in self-esteem and depressive symptoms both mediated 9% of the intervention effect on condomless anal sex acts. Bacterial STI incidence did not differ between study conditions at 12-month follow-up. INTERPRETATION: A resilience-based psychosocial intervention for MSM at risk of HIV acquisition or transmission in India was efficacious in reducing condomless anal sex acts, with evidence for mediation effects in two key target resilience variables. HIV prevention programmes for MSM in India should address mental health resilience to augment reductions in the risk of sexually transmitted HIV. FUNDING: National Institute of Mental Health.

Geographic and behavioral differences associated with sexually transmitted infection prevalence among Indian men who have sex with men in Chennai and Mumbai.

India has one of the largest numbers of men who have sex with men (MSM) globally; however, geographic data on sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevalence and associations with sexual behavior are limited. Six-hundred and eight MSM in Chennai and Mumbai underwent screening for a behavioral trial and were assessed for bacterial STIs (syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea), HIV, and past-month self-reported condomless anal sex (CAS). Mumbai (37.8%) had a greater prevalence of any STI than Chennai (27.6%) (prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.37, 95% CI: 1.09, 1.73). This pattern also emerged for gonorrhea and chlamydia separately but not syphilis. Conversely, Mumbai MSM reported lower rates of CAS (mean = 2.2) compared to Chennai MSM (mean = 14.0) (mean difference = -11.8, 95% CI: -14.6, -9.1). The interaction of city by CAS on any STI prevalence (PR = 2.09, 95% CI: 1.45, 3.01, p < .0001) revealed that in Chennai, higher rates of CAS were not associated with STI prevalence, but in Mumbai they were (PR = 2.49, 95% CI: 1.65, 3.76, p < .0001). The higher prevalence of bacterial STIs but lower frequency of CAS in Mumbai (versus Chennai), along with the significant interaction of CAS with city on STI rates, suggests that there are either differences in disease burden or differences by city with respect to self-reported assessment of CAS. Regardless, the high prevalence rates of untreated STIs and condomless sex among MSM suggest the need for additional prevention intervention efforts for MSM in urban India.

Depressive symptoms and human immunodeficiency virus risk behavior among men who have sex with men in Chennai, India.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) in India are a hidden population, facing unique environmental stressors and cultural pressures that place them at risk for depression. Depression may affect HIV risk behavior in MSM, and may affect the degree to which MSM may benefit from HIV prevention interventions. Depression in MSM in India, however, has largely been understudied. Two hundred ten MSM in Chennai completed an interviewer-administered behavioral assessment battery, which included the 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), demographics, sexual risk and identity, and other psychosocial variables. Over half (55%) of the sample exceeded the cutoff (CES-D >or= 16) to screen in for clinically significant depressive symptoms; this was associated with having had unprotected anal sex (OR = 1.97; 95% CI: 1.01-3.87) and higher number of male partners (OR = 1.04; 95% CI: 1.01-1.07). Statistically significant bivariate predictors of meeting the screen in for depressive symptoms included sexual identity (Kothi > Panthi; OR = 4.90; 95% CI: 2.30-10.54), not being married (OR = 3.40; 95% CI: 1.72-6.81), not having a child (OR = 4.40; 95% CI: 2.07-9.39), family not knowing about one's MSM identity (OR = 2.30; 95% CI: 1.18-4.90), having been paid for sex (OR = 5.10; p 95% CI: 2.87-9.47), and perceiving that one is at risk for acquiring HIV (OR = 1.10; 95% CI: 1.02-1.17; continuous). In a multivariable logistic-regression model, unique predictors of screening in for depressive symptoms included not being married (AOR = 3.10; 95% CI: 1.23-7.65), having been paid for sex (AOR = 3.80; 95% CI: 1.87-7.99) and the perception of increased risk for HIV (AOR = 1.10; 95% CI: 1.03-1.21; continuous); unprotected anal sex in the 3 months prior to study enrollment approached statistical significance (AOR = 2.00; 95% CI: 0.91-4.48). Depression among MSM in Chennai is of concern and should be considered while developing HIV prevention interventions with this population. MSM who are not married, sex workers, and those who perceive they are at risk for acquiring HIV may be of higher risk for symptoms of depression.

Ki-67 protein as a tumour proliferation marker.

Newer treatment strategy based on proliferative nuclear marker Ki-67 targeted therapy holds promise for prioritized/personalized treatment options with regard to improved survival and outcome in patients with renal cancer. Over the past decade, the importance of Ki-67 in prognosis of breast cancer has been widely studied, however very few studies and literatures are available in the context of renal cancer which has an increasing incidence internationally. The focus of this present review is to fill the gaps pertaining to its prognosis and management with newly understood mechanisms of targeted interventions. Recent breakthrough discoveries have highlighted the correlation of Ki-67 expression to stage and metastatic potential in renal tumours. A better understanding of molecular structure and different protein domains along with its regulation will provide evidence for precise target thereby controlling the proliferation rate correlated with decrease in the Ki-67 protein levels. Therapies targeting Ki-67 is still in the preclinical stage, besides its diagnostic and/or prognostic significance, a better understanding of targeted strategical studies is required for extrapolation to the clinical use. Current understanding of the associated molecular pathways and the precise role of Ki-67 could streamline the basis for predicting renal cancer outcome.

An Analysis of Dynamic Pulmonary Functions of Hypothyroid Patients.

INTRODUCTION: Hypothyroidism is a silent epidemic of our times. In India, the prevalence of hypothyroidism is 11%. The effect of hypothyroidism on respiratory system is debatable with studies suggesting both obstructive and restrictive disease patterns. The symptoms range from mild dyspnoea to life-threatening respiratory failure. This study emphasizes the effect of hypothyroidism on dynamic respiratory functions. AIM: To find out the changes in dynamic respiratory functions (FVC, FEV1, FEV1% and PEFR) in both male and female hypothyroid patients within age group of 18-45 years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted in Jubilee Mission Medical College, Thrissur, Kerala, India. Total number of 60 newly detected cases of both sexes in 18-45 years age group attending endocrinology outpatient department were enrolled. Patients with previous respiratory diseases and history of smoking were excluded. Proforma was filled up followed by clinical examination. Spirometry was performed using a computerised spirometer 'microQuark'. The data was analysed by paired t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test. RESULTS: The mean of the observed values in all the dynamic pulmonary parameters showed highly significant difference from the predicted mean of the parameters (p<0.001). They also decreased considerably with age, gender and BMI which were statistically significant (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: The above findings suggest that respiratory abnormality in newly detected cases of hypothyroidism shows a mixed pattern. This highlights that while investigating a patient with respiratory disorder, the thyroid status should always be probed into, as the effects of hypothyroidism can be reversed with proper treatment.

A survey of MSM HIV prevention outreach workers in Chennai, India.

The present formative study sought to describe issues relevant to HIV prevention among men who have sex with men (MSM) in South India by surveying 62 MSM outreach workers from three non governmental organizations in Chennai. Although 92% reported having sex with men, only 74% identified as gay and 27% were married. Only half of these men reported having been tested for HIV. More than half of the sample reported that they would rather not know they had HIV until they were sick, and almost half indicated that they would rather end their life than live with the disease. Eighty-five percent of the sample reported having experienced varying levels of harassment from police, and 86% reported varying levels of harassment from others. These data point to several important barriers to HIV prevention among MSM in South India and lay the groundwork for enhancing the use of outreach workers to play a role in HIV prevention in this population.

A simple and safe technique for pneumatic reduction of intussusception.

BACKGROUND: Pneumatic reduction has a higher success rate and lower incidence of complications compared to barium enema and hydrostatic reductions. What is deterrent to its common use is the cumbersome technique. Our aim is to develop a simple technique that can be used in any hospital with locally available facilities. METHODS: An intercostal drainage bottle and an enema can were used to pass air into the rectum at a controlled pressure determined by the height of the enema can. Water running in from the enema can displaces the air in the intercostal drainage bottle into the rectum effecting the reduction of intussusception. RESULTS: This system was tried in 12 patients. Successful air delivery was obtained in all cases. In two cases, the intussusception could not be reduced. Laparotomy revealed these to be ileoileal intussusceptions. CONCLUSION: The technique described is easy to assemble, safe and effective. We recommend it for regular use in pneumatic reduction of intussusception.

Thoracoscopic repair of eventration of diaphragm.

pen thoracotomy and plication of eventration of diaphragm leads to hypoventilation due to pain and lung contusion due to retraction. We present two cases, 8 month and 4 years old; in whom plication was done thoracoscopically. Both had smooth recovery, early extubation and excellent cosmetic result.

Ensuring it works: a community-based approach to HIV prevention intervention development for men who have sex with men in Chennai, India.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) in India have an HIV seroprevalence 22 times greater than the country's general population and face unique challenges that may hinder the effectiveness of current HIV prevention efforts. To obtain an understanding of the logistical and sociocultural barriers MSM experience while accessing HIV prevention services, focus groups and key informant interviews were conducted with 55 MSM in Chennai, India. Qualitative data were analyzed using descriptive qualitative content analysis. Sixty-five percent of participants identified as kothi (receptive partners), 9% as panthi (insertive partners), 22% as double decker (receptive and insertive), and 4% did not disclose. Themes included: (a) fatigue with current HIV risk reduction messages; (b) increased need for non-judgmental and confidential services; and (c) inclusion of content that acknowledges individual and structural-level determinants of risk such as low self-esteem, depression, and social discrimination. MSM interventions may benefit from approaches that address multilevel psychosocial factors, including skills building and strategies to foster self-acceptance and increased social support.

Prevalence of upper airway obstruction in patients with apparently asymptomatic euthyroid multi nodular goitre.

AIMS: To study the prevalence of upper airway obstruction (UAO) in "apparently asymptomatic" patients with euthyroid multinodular goitre (MNG) and find correlation between clinical features, UAO on pulmonary function test (PFT) and tracheal narrowing on computerised tomography (CT). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Consecutive patients with apparently asymptomatic euthyroid MNG attending thyroid clinic in a tertiary centre underwent clinical examination to elicit features of UAO, PFT, and CT of neck and chest. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED: Statistical analysis was done with SPSS version 11.5 using paired t-test, Chi square test, and Fisher's exact test. P value of <0.05 was considered to be significant. RESULTS: Fifty-six patients (52 females and four males) were studied. The prevalence of UAO (PFT) and significant tracheal narrowing (CT) was 14.3%. and 9.3%, respectively. Clinical features failed to predict UAO or significant tracheal narrowing. Tracheal narrowing (CT) did not correlate with UAO (PFT). Volume of goitre significantly correlated with degree of tracheal narrowing. CONCLUSIONS: Clinical features do not predict UAO on PFT or tracheal narrowing on CT in apparently asymptomatic patients with euthyroid MNG.

Clinical profile of insulinoma: analysis from a tertiary care referral center in India.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical presentation, localization techniques, surgical procedures and outcome in patients with insulinoma. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of case records of patients diagnosed with insulinoma between January 1993 and June 2009 at a tertiary-care hospital was done. Seventeen patients underwent diagnostic 72-h fast. The sensitivity of computed tomography (CT) of pancreas was judged using intraoperative findings as the gold standard. RESULTS: Twenty-six patients (19 women) with mean age 42.2 years (median age 39.5 years) with biochemical/imaging evidence of insulinoma were included. All patients who underwent 72-h fast developed symptomatic hypoglycemia within 48 h. The sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV) of CT of pancreas was 68.4% and 92.8%, respectively. Twenty patients underwent surgery, of whom four were operated on without preoperative localization. Four patients had recurrence of symptoms. Of the six patients who were not operated upon, the lesion was localized in four. CONCLUSION: This audit shows that all patients with insulinoma develop hypoglycemia within 48 h of fasting. CT of pancreas localizes the lesion in two thirds of cases and would be a useful initial investigation in patients with suspected insulinoma.

Unseen and unheard: predictors of sexual risk behavior and HIV infection among men who have sex with men in Chennai, India.

In India men who have sex with men (MSM) are stigmatized, understudied, and at high risk for HIV. Understanding the impact of psychosocial issues on HIV risk behavior and HIV infection can help shape culturally relevant HIV prevention interventions. Peer outreach workers recruited 210 MSM in Chennai who completed an interviewer-administered psychosocial assessment battery and underwent HIV testing and counseling. More than one fifth (46/210) reported unprotected anal intercourse in the past 3 months, 8% tested positive for HIV, and 26% had previously participated in an HIV prevention intervention. In a multivariable logistic-regression model controlling for age, MSM subpopulation (kothi, panthi, or double-decker), marital status, and religion, significant predictors of any unprotected anal intercourse were being less educated (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = .54; p = .009), not having previously participated in an HIV prevention program (AOR = 3.75; p = .05), having clinically significant depression symptoms (AOR = 2.8; p = .02), and lower self-efficacy (AOR = .40; p < .0001). Significant predictors of testing positive for HIV infection were: being less educated (AOR = .53; .05) and not currently living with parent(s) (AOR = 3.71; p = .05). Given the prevalence of HIV among MSM, efforts to reach hidden subpopulations of MSM in India are still needed. Such programs for MSM in India may need to address culturally-relevant commonly cooccurring psychosocial problems to maximize chances of reducing risk for infection.

HIV prevention interventions in Chennai, India: are men who have sex with men being reached?

India has the greatest number of HIV infections in Asia and the third highest total number of infected persons globally. Men who have sex with men (MSM) are considered by the Government of India's National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) a "core risk group" for HIV in need of HIV prevention efforts. However there is a dearth of information on the frequency of participation in HIV prevention interventions and subsequent HIV risk and other correlates among MSM in India. Recruited through peer outreach workers, word of mouth and snowball sampling techniques, 210 MSM in Chennai completed an interviewer-administered assessment, including questions about participating in any HIV prevention interventions in the past year, sexual risk taking, demographics, MSM identities, and other psychosocial variables. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression procedures were used to examine behavioral and demographic correlates with HIV prevention intervention participation. More than a quarter (26%) of the sample reported participating in an HIV prevention intervention in the year prior to study participation. Participants who reported engaging in unprotected anal sex (UAS; odds ratio [OR] = 0.28; p = 0.01) in the 3 months prior to study enrollment were less likely to have participated in an HIV prevention program in the past year. MSM who were older (OR = 1.04; p = 0.05), kothis (feminine acting/appearing and predominantly receptive partners in anal sex) compared to panthis (masculine appearing, predominantly insertive partners; OR = 5.52, p = 0.0004), those with higher educational attainment (OR = 1.48, p = 0.01), being "out" about having sex with other men (OR = 4.03, p = 0.0001), and MSM who reported ever having been paid in exchange for sex (OR = 2.92, p = 0.001) were more likely to have reported participation in an HIV prevention intervention in the preceding year. In a multivariable model, MSM reporting UAS in the prior 3 months were less likely to have participated in an HIV prevention intervention (AOR = 0.34, p = 0.04). MSM who were older (AOR = 1.05, p = 0.05), those with higher educational attainment (AOR = 1.92, p = 0.0009), and MSM who were "out" about having sex with other men (AOR = 2.71, p = 0.04) were more likely to have reported participating in an HIV prevention program. Findings suggest that exposure to HIV prevention interventions may be protective against engaging in UAS for some MSM in India. Understanding predictors of participation in an HIV prevention intervention is helpful for identifying Indian MSM who might have had no exposure to HIV prevention information and skills building, hence allowing researchers and prevention workers to focus efforts on individuals at greatest need.