[Headaches]. / Kopfschmerzen.

Headaches can be so severe that patients and doctors often fear life-threatening underlying cerebral pathologies. The spectrum of causes of headache is very heterogeneous and ranges from harmless situations to severe diseases, so that it is very difficult to consider all differential diagnoses simultaneously; however, a few targeted questions and physical examinations are sufficient to be able to make a better classification of the leading symptom headache. The following article serves as a quick guide for identification of patients at risk. It describes basic findings, red flags and specials warning signs that must immediately lead to emergency admission for further diagnostics.

Risk and risk perception of knee osteoarthritis in the US: a population-based study.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to investigate risk perception among an online cohort of younger US adults compared with calculated risk estimates. DESIGN: We recruited a population-based cohort 25-44 years of age with no history of knee osteoarthritis (OA) using Amazon's Mechanical Turk, an online marketplace used extensively for behavioral research. After collecting demographic and risk factor information, we asked participants to estimate their 10-year and lifetime risk of knee OA. We compared perceived risk with risk derived from the OA risk calculator (OA Risk C), an online tool built on the basis of the validated OA Policy Model. RESULTS: 375 people completed the study. 21% reported having 3+ risk factors for OA, 25% reported two risk factors, and 32% reported one risk factor. Using the OA Risk C, we calculated a mean lifetime OA risk of 25% and 10-year risk of 4% for this sample. Participants overestimated their lifetime and 10-year OA risk at 48% and 26%, respectively. We found that obesity, female sex, family history of OA, history of knee injury, and occupational exposure were all significantly associated with greater perceived lifetime risk of OA. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors are prevalent in this relatively young cohort. Participants consistently overestimated their lifetime risk and showed even greater overestimation of their 10-year risk, suggesting a lack of knowledge about the timing of OA onset. These data offer insights for awareness and risk interventions among younger persons at risk for knee OA.

Model-based evaluation of cost-effectiveness of nerve growth factor inhibitors in knee osteoarthritis: impact of drug cost, toxicity, and means of administration.

OBJECTIVE: Studies suggest nerve growth factor inhibitors (NGFi) relieve pain but may accelerate disease progression in some patients with osteoarthritis (OA). We sought cost and toxicity thresholds that would make NGFi a cost-effective treatment for moderate-to-severe knee OA. DESIGN: We used the Osteoarthritis Policy (OAPol) model to estimate the cost-effectiveness of NGFi compared to standard of care (SOC) in OA, using Tanezumab as an example. Efficacy and rates of accelerated OA progression were based on published studies. We varied the price/dose from $200 to $1000. We considered self-administered subcutaneous (SC) injections (no administration cost) vs provider-administered intravenous (IV) infusion ($69-$433/dose). Strategies were defined as cost-effective if their incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was less than $100,000/quality-adjusted life year (QALY). In sensitivity analyses we varied efficacy, toxicity, and costs. RESULTS: SOC in patients with high levels of pain led to an average discounted quality-adjusted life expectancy of 11.15 QALYs, a lifetime risk of total knee replacement surgery (TKR) of 74%, and cumulative discounted direct medical costs of $148,700. Adding Tanezumab increased QALYs to 11.42, reduced primary TKR utilization to 63%, and increased costs to between $155,400 and $199,500. In the base-case analysis, Tanezumab at $600/dose was cost-effective when delivered outside of a hospital. At $1000/dose, Tanezumab was not cost-effective in all but the most optimistic scenario. Only at rates of accelerated OA progression of 10% or more (10-fold higher than reported values) did Tanezumab decrease QALYs and fail to represent a viable option. CONCLUSIONS: At $100,000/QALY, Tanezumab would be cost effective if priced ≤$400/dose in all settings except IV hospital delivery.

Treatment with protease inhibitors associated with peripheral insulin resistance and impaired oral glucose tolerance in HIV-1-infected patients.

BACKGROUND: The use of protease inhibitors in the treatment of HIV-1 infection is associated with the new onset of diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidaemia and lipodystrophy. It is unclear whether these findings are coincidental or whether they reflect a causative effect of protease inhibitors. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of treatment with protease inhibitors on insulin sensitivity, oral glucose tolerance and serum lipids in HIV-infected patients in order to determine whether treatment with protease inhibitors can cause peripheral insulin resistance. DESIGN: Cross-sectional controlled study in HIV-infected patients treated with protease inhibitors to assess insulin sensitivity, oral glucose tolerance and changes in serum lipids. METHODS: Sixty-seven patients treated with protease inhibitors, 13 therapy-naive patients and 18 HIV-negative control subjects were tested for insulin sensitivity (intravenous insulin tolerance test). In a subgroup of 24 treated patients, oral glucose tolerance was determined. Serum lipids prior to and under treatment with protease inhibitors were compared. RESULTS: Patients on protease inhibitors had a significantly decreased insulin sensitivity when compared with therapy-naive patients (median, 75 and 156 micromol/l/min, respectively; P < 0.001). All treated patients with impaired (n=4) or diabetic (n=9) oral glucose tolerance, and four out of 11 patients with normal glucose tolerance showed peripheral insulin resistance; all therapy-naive patients had normal insulin sensitivity. Treatment with protease inhibitors led to a significant increase in total triglycerides and cholesterol in the 67 treated patients (median increase, 113 and 37 mg/ml, respectively). CONCLUSION: Treatment with protease inhibitors is associated with peripheral insulin resistance, leading to impaired or diabetic oral glucose tolerance in some of the patients, and with hyperlipidaemia. Overall, there is a large variation in the severity and clinical presentation of protease inhibitor-associated metabolic side-effects.

Steroidal saponins from Asparagus africanus.

The structures of two new monodesmosidic spirostanosides and a new bisdesmosidic furostanol glycoside isolated from the roots of Asparagus africanus Lam. (Liliaceae) have been elucidated as (25R)-3 beta-hydroxy-5 beta-spirostan-12-one 3-O-{beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-->2)-[alpha-1-arabinopyranosyl-(1--> 6)]-beta- D-glucopyranoside} (1), (25R)-5 beta-spirostan-3 beta-ol 3-O-{beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-->2)-[alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl-(1--> 6)]-beta- D-glucopyranoside} (2) and 26-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl]-22 alpha-methoxy-(25R)-furostan-3 beta,26-diol 3-O-{beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-->2)-[beta-D-glucopyranoside} (3), respectively, by the combined use of one and two dimensional NMR experiments. The complete 13C and 1H assignments of the peracetyl spirostanosides and the furostanol oligoside were derived. The interconversions between the methoxyl and hydroxyl group at C-22 of the furostanol glycoside was investigated and the genuine furostanol oligoside of A. africanus appears to be the hydroxyl type based on the comparative study of the methanol, pyridine and dioxane extracts.

Triterpenoid saponins and sapogenin lactones from Albizia gummifera.

The structures of two new monodesmosidic and bisdesmosidic triterpenoid saponins (1 and 2) and the known compound delta 5-stigmasterol-3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside (3) as well as two new oleanane type triterpene lactone glycosides 4, 5 and a new sapogenin lactone 6 isolated from the stem bark of Albizia gummifera C.A. Smith (Mimosaceae) have been elucidated as 3-O-¿beta-D-glucopyranosyl(1-->2)-[alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl(1-->6) ]-beta-D- glucopyranosyl¿-oleanolic acid (1), beta-D-glucopyranosyl(1-->2)-beta-D-glucopyranosyl 3-O-¿beta-D-glucopyra-nosyl(1-->2)-[alpha-L-arabinopyrano syl(1-->6)]-beta-D- glucopyranosyl¿-oleanolate (2), 3 beta-¿O-D-glucopyranosyl-(1-->2)-[O-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl(1-->6 )] beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy¿-machaerinic acid gamma-lactone (4), 3 beta-O-beta-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid (1-->2)-beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy]-machaerinic acid gamma-lactone (5), and A-homo-3a-oxa-5 beta-olean-12-en-3-one-28-oic acid (6), respectively. The complete assignment of the 1H and 13C resonances of 1, 2, 4 and 6 and of the peracetate of 5 were achieved by means of 2D-NMR studies.

Synthesis and Physicochemical Characterization of a New Gadolinium Chelate: The Liver-Specific Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agent Gd-EOB-DTPA.

A convenient synthesis of disodium S-[4-(4-ethoxybenzyl)-3,6,9-tris[(carboxy-kappaO)methyl]-3,6,9-triazaundecandioato)(5-)-kappa(3)N(3)(),N(6)(),N(9)(),kappa(2)O(1)(),O(11)()]gadolinate(2-) (Gd-EOB-DTPA), 1, is reported. This water-soluble complex is presently undergoing phase III clinical trials as a liver-specific contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The thermodynamic complex stability constant of 1 and the acid dissociation constants of the ligand have been determined as well as the stability constant of the calcium complex Ca-EOB-DTPA (2), which is used as an additive in the pharmaceutical formulation of the contrast agent. The solid-state structure of the ligand S-4-(4-ethoxybenzyl)-3,6,9-tris(carboxylatomethyl)-3,6,9-triazaundecanedioic acid (H(5)EOB-DTPA), 3, has been elucidated in a single crystal X-ray diffraction study. Additionally, HPLC evidence is given that the enantiomerically pure ligand forms two diastereomeric gadolinium complexes in a 65:35 ratio. The kinetics of isomerization of the isolated diastereomers-as dependent on pH and temperature-has been investigated, and thus, the activation energy for the interconversion of these isomers has been estimated to be 75.3 kJ mol(-1). Finally, the structures of the two components of 1 are discussed in terms of four possible diastereomers.

Synthesis and Structure of a New Macrocyclic Polyhydroxylated Gadolinium Chelate Used as a Contrast Agent for Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

Three approaches to the synthesis of a new ligand 1,4,7-tris(carboxymethyl)-10-(1-(hydroxymethyl)-2,3-dihydroxypropyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (6) are described. This ligand forms the both thermodynamically and kinetically very stable gadolinium chelate Gadobutrol (1), which is a neutral and highly hydrophilic compound that is used for magnetic resonance imaging in the clinic. According to the crystal structure the Gd(III) ion in 1 is nine coordinated. The ligand provides eight coordination sites whereas the ninth coordination partner surprisingly is a carboxylate oxygen of a neighboring centrosymmetrically-related complex molecule. Ligand 6 was also utilized to prepare the calcium complex 12 which is used as an additive in the pharmaceutical formulation of 1. For the calcium complex 12, two complex molecules adopting almost identical conformations are present in the crystal.

Improvement of HAART-associated insulin resistance and dyslipidemia after replacement of protease inhibitors with abacavir.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of replacing protease inhibitors (PIs) with abacavir on insulin sensitivity and plasma lipids. - DESIGN: Pilot study including 31 patients with sustained virological control on their first PI-containing HAART regimen. 16 patients were switched from PIs to abacavir (ABC group), 15 patients continued on PIs (PI group). In all patients, nucleoside-analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitors were continued. METHODS: Insulin sensitivity (using an intravenous insulin tolerance test) and fasting total cholesterol and triglycerides were determined at baseline, month 3, 6, 9 and 12. RESULTS: In the ABC group, there was a significant increase in median insulin sensitivity from baseline within 6 months (+ 49 micromol/l/min), and a significant decrease in both triglycerides (-41mg/dl) and cholesterol (-40mg/dl) at month 3. These changes were sustained through month 12. In addition, a reversal of baseline insulin resistance, hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia was observed in the majority of patients. In the PI group, no significant changes in insulin sensitivity, triglycerides and cholesterol were observed. There was a significant correlation between the changes in insulin sensitivity, triglycerides and cholesterol. INTERPRETATION: Switching from PIs to abacavir is associated with an improvement of insulin sensitivity and a decrease of cholesterol and triglycerides in the majority of patients with HAART-associated metabolic alterations and therefore might be an alternative for patients to PI-containing HAART regimens.

[Acute hypopyon uveitis with rifabutin therapy of systemic Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection in AIDS]. / Akute Hypopyon-Uveitis unter Rifabutin-Therapie einer systemischen Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC)-Infektion bei AIDS.

BACKGROUND: Hypopyon-uveitis has been identified as a dosage-dependent side effect in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome who are treated for Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection with systemic rifabutin. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We report a 38-year-old female AIDS patient with bilateral hypopyon uveitis under therapy with rifabutin in combination with clarithromycin and indinavir. RESULTS: At the time of presentation of the bilateral hypopyon uveitis the patient was treated with rifabutin (300 mg/day), clarithromycin (1000 mg/day) and ethambutol (1000 mg/day) for an M. avium complex infection. Also, the patient received the protease inhibitor indinavir. The rifabutin dose was reduced to 150 mg/day. Hypopyon and inflammation resolved under therapy with steroids. CONCLUSIONS: The concomitant use of rifabutin, clarithromycin, and protease inhibitors may lead to hypopyon uveitis. Reduction of dosage of rifabutin (150 mg/day) and treatment with topical steroids are required.

Effects of troglitazone on insulin sensitivity in HIV-infected patients with protease inhibitor-associated diabetes mellitus.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is frequently associated with metabolic alterations, including insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus. In this pilot study, we evaluated the effect of the PPARgamma activator troglitazone on ART-associated insulin resistance in HIV-infected patients with ART-associated diabetes mellitus. Six patients with protease inhibitor (PI)-associated diabetes mellitus, lipodystrophy and dyslipidemia were treated with troglitazone 400 mg q.d. for 3 months. Previous oral antidiabetics were discontinued prior to the study. At baseline and after 3 months, insulin sensitivity (intravenous insulin tolerance test), body composition (multifrequence bioelectrical impedance analysis) and fat distribution (CT scan quantification) were assessed. Glycaemic control (fasting and postprandial blood glucose, fructosamine, glycosylated haemoglobin) and serum lipid status were determined monthly. In four of the six patients, there was a clear improvement in insulin sensitivity, resulting in a reversal of insulin resistance in two of these patients. Overall, there was an increase in lean body mass and a decrease in total body fat. The volume of visceral adipose tissue decreased whilst the volume of subcutaneous adipose tissue increased. Total cholesterol, LDL and HDL cholesterol increased, and total triglycerides and VLDL-cholesterol decreased. No adverse effects such as hepatotoxicity were observed. Treatment with troglitazone 400 mg q.d. can ameliorate and in some cases even reverse ART-associated insulin resistance. Therefore, further studies including non-diabetic patients with ART-associated insulin resistance may be helpful in evaluating the long-term effects of thiazolidinediones on ART-associated insulin resistance and other metabolic complications, such as adipose maldistribution and dyslipidaemia.

Sex-dependent risk taking in the collared flycatcher, Ficedula albicollis, when exposed to a predator at the nestling stage.

An increased mortality rate is a cost of parental care, and can be high during the provisioning phase of altricial nestlings. When a parent stops feeding the nestlings temporarily after seeing a predator, it can reduce its own predation risk, but the suspension of parental care may also reduce its offspring's chances of surviving. We modelled this situation by exposing a stuffed sparrowhawk near collared flycatcher nests and removing it when both parents had seen it. We measured the time (return time) between the removal and when each parent entered the nestbox. The parents' risk taking and the return time are assumed to be inversely related. We studied which brood variables the parents take into account when deciding how much risk they are willing to take during the provisioning period. Males took more risk for older and better-quality nestlings and earlier broods. The females' behaviour was opposite to that of the males: they took significantly less risk for older and better-quality offspring and visited the nestbox later for earlier broods. The males' behaviour supported the reproductive value hypothesis, that risk taking is related to brood value and survival chances, whereas the females' behaviour supported the harm to offspring hypothesis, that risk taking is related to the broods' vulnerability. Copyright 2000 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Stavudine versus zidovudine and the development of lipodystrophy.

The pathogenesis of some components of the lipodystrophy (LD) syndrome might be linked to the use of nucleosides. Earlier reports did not compare treatment regimens according to the nucleoside backbone. We studied a cohort of individuals who did not switch between stavudine and zidovudine. LD was defined to be present if one of three criteria was met: self-report by the patient, observation by an investigator who had known the patient since commencement of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), or examination by a physician masked to therapy. The mean duration of therapy was 101 weeks (range: 26-234 weeks). Overall prevalence of LD was 48.7%. Lipoatrophy and lipohypertrophy occurred in 33.9% and 28.7% of patients, respectively. Logistic regression showed four parameters to be significantly associated with lipoatrophy: HAART longer than 2 years (p =.002, odds ratio [OR] = 4.4, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.608-11.965), baseline viral load >100,000 copies/ml (p =.004, OR = 4.3, CI: 1.726-11.197), age >40 years (p =.016, OR = 3.2, CI: 1.247-8.373), and white ethnicity (p =.041, OR = 5.4, CI: 1.070-28.184). Cholesterol levels of >200 mg/dl at baseline were associated with a risk reduction (p =.047, OR = 0.36, CI: 0.130-0.987). Use of lipohypertrophy as a dependent variable resulted in a significant association with HAART duration (p = 0.028, OR = 2.7, CI: 1.2-6.5) and protease inhibitor use (p =.014, OR = 3.8, CI: 1.3-11.2). LD prevalence is similar with both backbones using stavudine or zidovudine. This is the first time that baseline cholesterol was shown to be significantly associated with lipoatrophy.

Alterations of apolipoprotein B metabolism in HIV-infected patients with antiretroviral combination therapy.

BACKGROUND: Dyslipidemia (predominantly hypertriglyceridemia) is frequently seen in patients receiving antiretroviral combination therapy (ART). However, the underlying mechanisms and long-term risks (e.g., cardiovascular events) are still unclear. OBJECTIVES/METHODS: In 5 patients with ART-associated dyslipidemia, stable isotope labeled amino acid tracer (d3-Leu) kinetic analysis over 12 days was used to investigate the metabolism of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins (very low density lipoproteins [VLDL]1, VLDL2, intermediate density lipoproteins [IDL] and low density lipoproteins [LDL]). Data were compared with those in 6 healthy normolipidemic controls. RESULTS: The patients under ART showed significantly increased fasting triglycerides (359 vs. 77 mg/dl) and VLDL (54 vs. 15 mg/dl), compared with controls. They had significantly higher total cholesterol (213 vs. 157 mg/dl) and there was a nonsignificant trend toward higher LDL (136 vs. 93 mg/dl), and toward lower HDL (26 vs. 46 mg/dl). The ratio of large, buoyant LDL1 over small, dense LDL2 was markedly reduced in patients under ART (0.80 vs. 2.00). Total apo B synthesis was significantly increased (25.5 vs. 14.5 mg/kg/d) and shifted toward triglyceride rich VLDL1 (18.5 vs. 8.7 mg/kg/d) in patients receiving ART. There was also a significantly reduced rate of apo B lipoprotein transfer from VLDL1 to VLDL2 (3.7 vs. 20.7 pools/d). In addition, all patients revealed insulin resistance. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that increased triglycerides in HIV-infected patients with ART are primary due to reduced rates of VLDL transfer into denser lipoproteins implying a lower rate of lipoprotein lipase-mediated delipidation. In addition, total apo B synthesis was increased and shifted toward triglyceride-rich VLDL1. Overall, this lipoprotein profile in patients with ART-associated dyslipidemia implies an increased risk for cardiovascular events.