BMP15 "knockout-like" effect in familial premature ovarian insufficiency with persistent ovarian reserve.

Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) affects 1% to 2% of women under 40 years. Bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP15) variants have been described in POI. We studied a family with 2 sisters compound heterozygous for deletions in the BMP15 gene on chromosome Xp11.22 yielding a human "knockout-like" effect: a c.151_152delGA deletion yielded a p.Glu51IlefsTer27 mutation transmitted by the hemizygous father and a c.189_198delAGGGCATTCAinsTG deletion/insertion yielded a p.Glu64AlafsTer12 mutation transmitted by the heterozygous mother. Both deletions resulted in frameshifts with premature stop codons at positions 78 and 76 in the proregion, precluding mature BMP15 production. One sister had primary amenorrhea and the other primo-secondary amenorrhea. No bone abnormality was observed. Despite streak ovaries devoid of follicles on ultrasonography, anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) levels were low but detectable suggesting the presence of growing follicles. Five years later, AMH was undetectable in both sisters, 1 had received an egg donation. BMP15 did not seem critical for follicles to enter the growth phase. Genetic counselling should be performed and fertility preservation discussed before progressive loss of follicular reserve. The fertile heterozygous mother did not support previous reports of BMP15 haploinsufficiency and gene dosage in humans, as in bovine species. The hemizygous brother had asthenozoospermia, consistent with previous observations in bulls with a variant BMP15.

Array comparative genomic hybridization analysis of small supernumerary marker chromosomes in human infertility.

Small supernumerary marker chromosomes (sSMC) are structurally abnormal chromosomes that cannot be unambiguously identified by conventional banding cytogenetics. This study describes four patients with sSMC in relation with infertility. Patient 1 had primary infertility. His brother, fertile, carried the same sSMC (patient 2). Patient 3 presented polycystic ovary syndrome and patient 4 primary ovarian insufficiency. Cytogenetic studies, array comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) and sperm analyses were compared with cases previously reported. sSMC corresponded to the 15q11.2 region (patients 1 and 2), the centromeric chromosome 15 region (patient 3) and the 21p11.2 region (patient 4). Array CGH showed 3.6-Mb gain for patients 1 and 2 and 0.266-Mb gain for patient 4. Sperm fluorescent in-situ hybridization analyses found ratios of 0.37 and 0.30 of sperm nuclei with sSMC(15) for patients 1 and 2, respectively (P < 0.001). An increase of sperm nuclei with disomy X, Y and 18 was noted for patient 1 compared with control and patient 2 (P < 0.001). Among the genes mapped in the unbalanced chromosomal regions, POTE B and BAGE are related to the testis and ovary, respectively. The implication of sSMC in infertility could be due to duplication, but also to mechanical effects perturbing meiosis.

Cloning and sequencing of porcine LH-hCG receptor cDNA: variants lacking transmembrane domain.

Complementary DNA clones, encoding the LH-hCG (luteinizing hormone-human choriogonadotropic hormone) receptor were isolated by screening a lambda gt11 library with monoclonal antibodies. The primary structure of the protein was deduced from the DNA sequence analysis; the protein contains 696 amino acids with a putative signal peptide of 27 amino acids. Hydropathy analysis suggests the existence of seven transmembrane domains that show homology with the corresponding regions of other G protein-coupled receptors. Three other types of clones corresponding to shorter proteins were observed, in which the putative transmembrane domain was absent. These probably arose through alternative splicing. RNA blot analysis showed similar patterns in testis and ovary with a major RNA of 4700 nucleotides and several minor species. The messenger RNA was expressed in COS-7 cells, yielding a protein that bound hCG with the same affinity as the testicular receptor.

Penetrance estimation of TTR familial amyloid polyneuropathy (type I) in Brazilian families.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP) type I is a severe autosomal dominant inherited neuropathy associated with mutations in the transthyretin (TTR) gene. Significant phenotypic variability is seen amongst families with distinct geographic origin, especially regarding penetrance and age of onset. The aim of this study was to estimate the penetrance of FAP in Brazilian families. METHODS: Twenty-two distinct families were ascertained through genetically confirmed index cases and included in this study. Genealogical and clinical data were obtained from a total of 623 individuals, including 126 affected by FAP. In 15 families, TTR genotyping was performed in all available relatives (n = 86), after informed written consent. Seven families did not consent for genetic testing, but agreed to provide clinical and genealogical data. Penetrance was estimated using a previously described method based on survival analysis and corrected for ascertainment bias. RESULTS: Mean age of onset in our sample was 34.5 years, with a significant earlier onset in males (31.1 vs. 35.9, P < 0.0001). The penetrance of FAP in our sample was estimated as 83% (95% CI: 66-99) after 60 years. CONCLUSION: Our results provide new information on FAP in Brazilian patients and may be helpful in the genetic counseling of this population.

Evaluation of different markers of the ovarian reserve in patients presenting with premature ovarian failure.

Premature ovarian failure (POF) is a heterogeneous syndrome, possibly due to mutations of genes involved in the normal development of the ovary and/or the follicles. Based essentially on animal models, these mutations are associated with various ovarian histological phenotypes, from a complete absence of to a partial follicular maturation. The aims of our work were in one hand to determine if ovarian histology, compared to pelvic ultrasonography, would be helpful either in identifying which patients display an impaired follicular growth or in the orientation of the POF etiology; on the other hand, since developing follicles up to the antral stage are reported in POF and that Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) might be a good indicator of follicular presence, we decided to determine whether AMH should be a better marker to determine the presence of an ovarian reserve in POF patients. To try to answer to the first question, we studied first 166 patients suffering from POF with a normal karyotype. Vaginal ultrasonography (US) was performed in 134 patients and an ovarian biopsy was obtained in 67 women. The presence of follicles suggested at US was confirmed at histology in only 56% of the patients. Ovarian histology led to the distinction of two phenotypes (a) small-sized ovaries, deprived of follicles, and (b) normal-sized ovaries with partial follicular maturation. To confirm the value of ovarian biopsies, samples from 20 normal women have been studied, confirming that ovarian biopsy at random allow reliable assessment of follicular activity. To try to answer to the second question of our work, a cross sectional study analyzing serum AMH, ovarian histology and AMH immunoexpression in 48 POF patients, was performed. Serum AMH was significantly higher in women with more than 5 follicles at ovarian histology. Ovarian AMH immunostaining revealed a normal AMH expression in POF preantral follicles but a decrease expression at the early antral stages. In conclusion, ovarian histology appears to be a reliable tool to appreciate the follicular reserve, and helpful and complementary to clinical and hormonal phenotyping in order to orient the search for various genetic causes of POF syndrome. Finally, AMH levels in POF patients could identify women with persistent follicles.

Molecular pathology of the FSH receptor: new insights into FSH physiology.

Manipulations of mouse genome have helped to elucidate gonadotrophin function but important differences subsist between rodent and human reproduction. Studies of patients with mutations of gonadotrophins or gonadotrophin receptors genes allow understanding their physiological effects in humans. The correlation of the clinical phenotypes of patients with in vitro studies of the mutated receptor residual function and histological and immunohistological studies of the ovarian biopsies permits to understand which stages of follicular development are under FSH control. Total FSH receptor (FSHR) inactivation causes infertility with an early block of follicular maturation remarkably associated with abundant small follicles as in prepubertal ovaries and demonstrates the absolute requirement of FSH for follicular development starting from the primary stage. Partial FSHR inactivation, characterized by normal-sized ovaries, can sustain follicular development up to the early antral stages but incremental levels of FSH stimulation seem to be required for antral follicular growth before selection. These findings contrast with the traditional view of an initial gonadotrophin-independent follicular growth prior to the preantral-early antral stages. The presence of numerous reserve follicles in the ovaries of these patients may permit a future treatment of their infertility. The study of reduced FSHbeta or FSHR activity in genetically modified male mice models and in men suggests a minor impact of the FSHR on masculine fertility. Further studies on patients with a demonstrated total FSHbeta or FSHR inactivation are required to elucidate reported differences in spermatogenesis impairment. Finally, the studies of mutations of gonadotrophins and their receptors demonstrate differences in gonadotrophin function between genetically modified rodents and humans which suggest prudence in extrapolating observations in rodents to human reproduction. Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) can infrequently arise spontaneously during pregnancy, but most often it is an iatrogenic complication of ovarian stimulation treatments with ovulation drugs for in vitro fertilization. The first genetic cause of familial recurrent spontaneous OHSS was identified as a broadening specificity of the FSHR for hCG due to naturally occurring heterozygous mutations located unexpectedly in the transmembrane domain of the FSHR. Broadening specificity of a G protein-coupled receptor is extremely rare. These observations led to the identification of the etiology of this previously unexplained syndrome and permitted to conceive novel models of FSHR activation. Susceptibility to iatrogenic OHSS or its clinical severity may be associated with FSHR polymorphisms with slightly different activities in vivo as suggested by several studies. The study of larger cohorts is needed to evaluate the clinical impact of these observations in the management of patients undergoing IVF protocols.

A novel phenotype related to partial loss of function mutations of the follicle stimulating hormone receptor.

A single natural loss of function mutation of the follicle stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) has been described to date. Present in the Finnish population it markedly impairs receptor function, blocking follicle development at the primary stage and presenting as primary amenorrhea with atrophic ovaries. When Western European women with this phenotype were examined for FSHR mutations the result was negative, suggesting that other etiologies corresponding to this clinical pattern are markedly more frequent. We now describe a novel phenotype related to mutations provoking a partial loss of function of the FSHR. A woman with secondary amenorrhea had very high plasma gonadotropin concentrations (especially FSH), contrasting with normal sized ovaries and antral follicles up to 5 mm at ultrasonography. Histological and immunohistochemical examination of the ovaries showed normal follicular development up to the small antral stage and a disruption at further stages. The patient was found to carry compound heterozygotic mutations of the FSHR gene: Ile160Thr and Arg573Cys substitutions located, respectively, in the extracellular domain and in the third intracellular loop of the receptor. The mutated receptors, when expressed in COS-7 cells, showed partial functional impairment, consistent with the clinical and histological observations: the first mutation impaired cell surface expression and the second altered signal transduction of the receptor. This observation suggests that a limited FSH effect is sufficient to promote follicular growth up to the small antral stage. Further development necessitates strong FSH stimulation. The contrast between very high FSH levels and normal sized ovaries with antral follicles may thus be characteristic of such patients.

Oncogenic potential of a mutant human thyrotropin receptor expressed in FRTL-5 cells.

An abnormal stimulation of the cAMP pathway has been recognized as the primary event in various pathological situations that lead to goitrogenesis or thyroid tumors. Thyroid adenomas are monoclonal neoplasms that become independent of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in their secretory function and growth. Mutated forms of the TSH receptor (TSHR) and the adenylyl cyclase-activating Gs alpha protein, which confer a constitutive activity on these proteins, have been observed in human adenomas. The FRTL-5 rat thyroid cell line is a permanent but untransformed line; the growth of which depends on the presence of TSH, and at least in part, on the stimulation of the cAMP pathway. In order to compare the oncogenic potential of the activated mutant Gs alpha protein and the constitutively activated TSHR, we have transfected FRTL-5 cells with an expression vector bearing either the cDNA of the Gs alpha gene carrying the A201S mutation or the cDNA of the TSH receptor carrying the M453T mutation recently identified in a case of congenital hyperthyroidism. The expression of these two cDNAs was driven by the bovine thyroglobulin gene promoter. We show that, although the expression of both the Gs alpha or TSHR mutant proteins leads to TSH-independent proliferation and to constitutive cAMP accumulation in FRTL-5 cells, only the mutant TSHR is able to induce neoplastic transformation, as demonstrated by growth in semi-solid medium and tumorigenesis in nude mice.

Structure of the human progesterone receptor gene.

The complete organization of the human progesterone receptor (hPR) gene has been determined. It spans over 90 kbp and contains eight exons. The first exon encodes the N-terminal part of the receptor. The DNA binding domain is encoded by two exons, each exon corresponding to one zinc finger. The steroid binding domain is encoded by five exons. The nucleotide sequence of 1144 bp of the 5' flanking region has been determined.

New natural inactivating mutations of the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor: correlations between receptor function and phenotype.

Premature ovarian failure occurs in almost 1% of women under age 40. Molecular alterations of the FSH receptor (FSHR) have recently been described. A first homozygous mutation of the FSHR was identified in Finland. More recently, we described two new mutations of the FSHR in a woman presenting a partial FSH-resistance syndrome (patient 1). We now report new molecular alterations of the FSHR in another woman (patient 2) who presented at the age of 19 with primary amenorrhea contrasting with normal pubertal development. She had high plasma FSH, and numerous ovarian follicles up to 3 mm in size were evidenced by ultrasonography. Histological and immunohistochemical examination of ovarian biopsies revealed the presence of a normal follicular development up to the antral stage and disruption at further stages. DNA sequencing showed two heterozygous mutations: Asp224Val in the extracellular domain and Leu601Val in the third extracellular loop of FSHR. Cells transfected with expression vectors encoding the wild type or the mutated Leu601Val receptors bound hormone with similar affinity, whereas binding was barely detectable with the Asp224Val mutant. Confocal microscopy showed the latter to have an impaired targeting to the cell membrane. This was confirmed by its accumulation as a mannose-rich precursor. Adenylate cyclase stimulation by FSH of the Leu601Val mutant receptor showed a 12+/-3% residual activity, whereas in patient 1 a 24+/-4% residual activity was detected for the Arg573Cys mutant receptor. These results are in keeping with the fact that estradiol and inhibin B levels were higher in patient 1 and that stimulation with recombinant FSH did not increase follicular size, estradiol, or inhibin B levels in patient 2 in contrast to what was observed for patient 1. Thus, differences in the residual activity of mutated FSHR led to differences in the clinical, biological, and histological phenotypes of the patient.

[Wilson disease: clinical and biological aspects]. / La maladie de Wilson: aspects clinicobiologiques.

Wilson disease is an autosomal recessive disorder of copper excess. This illness results from mutations of the ATP7B gene (chromosome 13, MIM# 277900). The discovery of the gene allowed a better understanding of cytosolic copper trafficking and its relationship with ceruloplasmin synthesis. Symptomatic patients may present with hepatic, neurologic or psychiatric forms. Clinical and phenotypic evidences provide only presumptive arguments for this disease which can be routinely assessed by molecular analysis. This genetic disease which can be efficiently treated was formerly biologically suspected after a careful but sometimes invasive study of copper metabolism. Genetic advances can now give a definite answer using linkage analysis and research for disease-causing mutations. However, this diagnosis strategy is limited since currently over 320 mutations and 80 polymorphisms have been currently identified.

Expression of the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor in the folliculo-stellate cells of the human anterior pituitary.

TSH secretion from the anterior pituitary is mainly regulated by TRH and thyroid hormones. We hypothesized that in addition the pituitary itself could modulate TSH production by sensing its own TSH release, enabling fine-tuning of TSH secretion. For such an ultra-short loop control, the pituitary should contain a TSH receptor (TSH-R). To find evidence for this we screened a human pituitary complementary DNA library with a digoxigenin-labeled TSH-R probe and found 2 positive clones of 32,000 plaques. One clone was sequenced and found to be completely identical to the thyroid TSH-R. Further proof was obtained by RT-PCR on a human anterior pituitary obtained at autopsy. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry confirmed the presence of TSH-R in the anterior pituitary at the messenger ribonucleic acid level as well as the protein level. Moreover, double labeling experiments revealed that TSH-R messenger ribonucleic acid as well as TSH-R protein colocalize with major histocompatibility complex class II expression of folliculo-stellate cells. We conclude that TSH-R is expressed in a subpopulation of folliculo-stellate cells in the human anterior pituitary. This finding suggests ultra-short loop regulation of TSH secretion. Putative recognition of the pituitary TSH-R by TSH-R antibodies might have clinical relevance in Graves' disease.

Analysis of the thyrotropin receptor as a candidate gene in familial Graves' disease.

Familial clustering of Graves' disease indicates a genetic etiology. Searches for genetic factors additional to the known human leukocyte antigen (HLA) association have implicated the gene for the TSH receptor (TSHR). We analyzed the linkage and association among three recently described microsatellite markers within the TSHR introns in Graves' disease in large multiply affected Welsh and English families (223 members, 44 affected individuals). Linkage analysis under a dominant model strongly rejected the hypothesis that TSHR is linked to Graves' disease in these families (lod score = -4.53). More detailed analyses also failed to provide evidence for linkage; these included combined segregation and linkage analysis, correction for HLA-DR3 status, allowance for the levels of thyroid autoantibodies in unaffected pedigree members, consideration of a recessive model for the disease, and linkage disequilibrium between disease and marker alleles. We also considered the possibility of a genetic heterogeneity of Graves' disease and thus analyzed separately the different families with a similar result. Although these results cannot eliminate a minor role of the TSHR gene locus in the genetics of Graves' disease, they argue against it being a major genetic determinant in this pathology.

A neomutation of the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor in a severe neonatal hyperthyroidism.

Until recently, neonatal hyperthyroidism has been considered to be related to the transplacental passage of thyroid-stimulating Ig present in the serum of the mother. We report here the case of a newborn who presented with severe hyperthyroidism, diffuse goiter, and important ocular signs (eyelid retraction and possibly proptosis). However, the absence of thyroid pathology in the parents and the lack of antithyroid antibodies in the mother and in the patient led us to suspect a nonimmune aetiology. Direct genomic sequencing of the last exon of the TSH receptor in the patient revealed a T-->C transversion yielding to a Met453-->Thr heterozygous substitution in the second transmembrane domain of the receptor. The mutation was absent in both parents. Eukaryotic expression analysis in COS-7 cells yielded a mutated receptor that produced constitutive activation of adenylate cyclase without enhancement of phospholipase C activity.

The same molecular defects of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor determine a variable degree of hypogonadism in affected kindred.

Detailed endocrinological studies were performed in the three affected kindred of a family carrying mutations of the GnRH receptor gene. All three were compound heterozygotes carrying on one allele the Arg262Gln mutation and on the other allele two mutations (Gln106Arg and Ser217Arg). When expressed in heterologous cells, both Gln106Arg and Ser217Arg mutations altered hormone binding, whereas the Arg262Gln mutation altered activation of phospholipase C. The propositus, a 30-yr-old man, displayed complete idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism with extremely low plasma levels of gonadotropins, absence of pulsatility of endogenous LH and alpha-subunit, absence of response to GnRH and GnRH agonist (triptorelin), and absence of effect of pulsatile administration of GnRH. The two sisters, 24 and 18 yr old, of the propositus displayed, on the contrary, only partial idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. They both had primary amenorrhea, and the younger sister displayed retarded bone maturation and uterus development, but both sisters had normal breast development. Gonadotropin concentrations were normal or low, but in both cases were restored to normal levels by a single injection of GnRH. In the two sisters, there were no spontaneous pulses of LH, but pulsatile administration of GnRH provoked a pulsatile secretion of LH in the younger sister. The same mutations of the GnRH receptor gene may thus determine different degrees of alteration of gonadotropin function in affected kindred of the same family.

Delayed puberty and primary amenorrhea associated with a novel mutation of the human follicle-stimulating hormone receptor: clinical, histological, and molecular studies.

Inactivating mutations of the FSH receptor have been described in rare cases of premature ovarian failure. Only one mutation was associated with a complete phenotype, including delayed puberty, primary amenorrhea, and small ovaries. We describe here a new patient presenting a similar complete phenotype of premature ovarian failure, with high plasma FSH levels associated with very low estrogen and inhibin B levels. No biological response to high doses of recombinant FSH was detected. A novel homozygous Pro(519)Thr mutation was found in this patient. This mutation is located in the second extracellular loop of the FSH receptor, within a motif highly conserved in gonadotropin and TSH receptors. The mutation totally impairs adenylate cyclase stimulation in vitro. FSH binding experiments and confocal microscopy showed that this mutation alters the cell surface targeting of the mutated receptor, which remains trapped intracellularly. Histological studies of the ovaries of the patient showed an increase in the density of small follicles compared with age-matched normal women. A complete block in follicular maturation after the primary stage was also observed. Immunocytochemical studies allowed detection of the expression of c-Kit and proliferation cellular nuclear antigen, whereas no apoptosis was shown by the 3'-end-labeling method. This observation supports the concept that in humans FSH seems mandatory for the initiation of follicular growth only after the primary stage. In our patient complete FSH resistance yields infertility, which is remarkably associated with the persistence of a high number of small follicles.

Comparison of immunocytochemical and molecular features with the phenotype in a case of incomplete male pseudohermaphroditism associated with a mutation of the luteinizing hormone receptor.

We report the case of an infant who presented at birth with a hypoplastic phallus associated with hypospadias. Low testosterone production, normal serum levels of steroid precursors, and increased LH in response to LH-releasing hormone supported a defect in Leydig cell differentiation or function. Conventional microscopic study of the testes showed fibroblastic cells in the interstitium. However immunocytochemical analysis using anti-LH receptor and anti-P450c17 antibodies demonstrated that about one third of these cells were Leydig cells or precursors of Leydig cells. No histological feature could distinguish the latter cells from fibroblasts. A homozygous substitution of cysteine 133 for arginine was found in the extracellular domain of the receptor. This is the first naturally occurring missense mutation found in the extracellular domain of the LH receptor. COS-7 cells transfected with the mutant receptor exhibited a marked impairment of hCG binding, whereas some cAMP production could be observed at high hCG concentrations. We propose that the partial impairment of LH receptor function, as reflected by the presence of Leydig cells, was responsible for the incomplete male pseudohermaphroditism observed in our patient.

Four families with loss of function mutations of the thyrotropin receptor.

We observed four families with loss of function mutations of the TSH receptor gene. One patient had a homozygous Pro162 Ala substitution. The three other were compound heterozygotes: 1) Gln324-->Stop and Asp410 Asn2), Cys41 Ser and Phe525 Leu, 3) Cys390 Trp and Trp546-->Stop. In all patients, the plasma TSH concentration was increased, whereas T3 and T4 concentrations were normal. The TSH levels were normal in the heterozygous parents. These results confirmed the recessive character of TSH receptor defects. Expression of the various mutated receptors in transfected COS-7 cells demonstrated the impairment of their function. We studied the expression of the receptors on the cell surface by immunofluorescence, their ability to bind hormone, and their capacity to activate adenylate cyclase. Some mutations allowed us to identify sites that are especially important for receptor function. The substitution Cys390 Trp abolished high affinity hormone binding. Receptor mutated at Asp410 Asn bound the hormone normally, but failed to activate adenylate cyclase. This result underscores the role of this acidic extracellular residue, close to the first transmembrane segment, in signal transmission. The Phe525 Leu substitution also markedly impaired adenylate cyclase activation, underlining the importance of the second intracellular loop in receptor signaling.

Genotypic-phenotypic variations in a series of 65 patients with familial amyloid polyneuropathy.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the genotypic-phenotypic variations in a series of patients with familial amyloid polyneuropathy (FAP). BACKGROUND: Progress in molecular genetics has led to the identification of point mutations in the transthyretin (TTR) gene in FAP--a dominantly inherited neuropathy with a fatal outcome. These findings have modified the management of patients with small-fiber neuropathy and allow genetic counseling. METHODS: We performed a clinical and molecular genetic study with screening of the TTR gene mutations and associated haplotypes in 65 patients from 29 unrelated families of French ancestry. RESULTS: We detected nine heterozygous point mutations segregating with FAP. Fourteen families (48%) carried the common methionine (Met) 30 substitution. Seven kindreds (24%) had previously unreported TTR variants, namely asparagine 35, serine (Ser) 91, phenylalanine (Phe) 77, and Ser 116. At least two different haplotypes were associated with each of the following: Met 30, Phe 77, and valine 107, suggesting that multiple founders occurred for each variant. Only 35% of the index patients had affected relatives. Other patients had a sporadic presentation. All progressed to a severe sensorimotor and autonomic neuropathy with frequent cardiac involvement (80%). On average, a late age at onset (54.3 +/- 13.3 years) and a disease duration shorter than 10 years were observed for virtually all variants. CONCLUSION: The heterogeneity of the TTR variants, the late age at onset, and the short duration of the disease found in our patients contrast with the presentation of FAP in Portugal. These findings must be taken into account in the management of both patients and asymptomatic carriers.

Microsatellites and PCR primers for genetic studies and genomic sequencing of the human TSH receptor gene.

The thyroid stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) is the main autoantigen in Graves' disease. Mutations of the TSH receptor have been implicated in various thyroid diseases. In this study, we describe three polymorphic markers localised within introns 2 and 7 of the TSH receptor gene. These markers are useful for the study of genetic diseases involving the TSH receptor. They allowed us to map precisely the TSH receptor gene on chromosome 14q31 between D14S287 and D14S68. We also describe selected primers and experimental conditions for the amplification and direct genomic sequencing of the 10 exons of the receptor gene.