Gene amplification in neoplasia: A cytogenetic survey of 80 131 cases.

Gene amplification is a crucial process in cancer development, leading to the overexpression of oncogenes. It manifests cytogenetically as extrachromosomal double minutes (dmin), homogeneously staining regions (hsr), or ring chromosomes (r). This study investigates the prevalence and distribution of these amplification markers in a survey of 80 131 neoplasms spanning hematologic disorders, and benign and malignant solid tumors. The study reveals distinct variations in the frequency of dmin, hsr, and r among different tumor types. Rings were the most common (3.4%) sign of amplification, followed by dmin (1.3%), and hsr (0.8%). Rings were particularly frequent in malignant mesenchymal tumors, especially liposarcomas (47.5%) and osteosarcomas (23.4%), dmin were prevalent in neuroblastoma (30.9%) and pancreatic carcinoma (21.9%), and hsr frequencies were highest in head and neck carcinoma (14.0%) and neuroblastoma (9.0%). Combining all three amplification markers (dmin/hsr/r), malignant solid tumors consistently exhibited higher frequencies than hematologic disorders and benign solid tumors. The structural characteristics of these amplification markers and their potential role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression highlight the complex interplay between cancer-initiating gene-level alterations, for example, fusion genes, and subsequent amplification dynamics. Further research integrating cytogenetic and molecular approaches is warranted to better understand the underlying mechanisms of these amplifications, in particular, the enigmatic question of why certain malignancies display certain types of amplification. Comparing the present results with molecular genetic data proved challenging because of the diversity in definitions of amplification across studies. This study underscores the need for standardized definitions in future work.

Aneuploidy in neoplasia: Single-cell data on 83,862 tumors.

Chromosomal aneuploidy, that is, numerical chromosome aberrations, is one of the molecular hallmarks of cancer. However, when neoplasms are studied with sequencing- and array-based approaches, chromosome numbers and ploidy states are typically inferred from bulk DNA data. Furthermore, published molecular estimates of neoplasia-associated aneuploidy often also include genomic imbalances resulting from various types of structural rearrangement, which likely result from other mechanisms than numerical chromosome aberrations. We thus analyzed chromosome numbers using single-cell cytogenetic data from 83,862 tumors, and show that both benign and malignant tumors are highly heterogeneous with regard to deviations from the normal, diploid state. Focusing on the chromosome numbers in 112 specific tumor types, defined by both exact morphologic diagnosis and organ location and from which data from ≥50 cases were available, we found two major clusters: one predominated by near-diploid neoplasms and one by neoplasms with extensive aneuploidy and one or more whole genome doublings. The former cluster included most benign solid tumors, myeloid neoplasms, and malignant gene fusion-associated solid tumors, whereas the latter was predominated by malignant solid tumors and lymphomas. For 16 malignant tumor types, the distribution of chromosome numbers could be compared to TCGA ploidy level data. Cytogenetic and molecular data correlated well, but the former indicates a higher level of clonal heterogeneity. The results presented here suggest shared pathogenetic mechanisms in certain tumor types and provide a reference for molecular analyses.

Giemsa-negative chromosome bands preferentially recombine in cancer-associated translocations and gene fusions.

Chromosome abnormalities, in particular translocations, and gene fusions are hallmarks of neoplasia. Although both have been recognized as important drivers of cancer for decades, our knowledge of the characterizing features of the cytobands involved in recombinations is poorly understood. The present study, based on a comparative analysis of 10 442 translocation breakpoints and 30 762 gene fusions comprising 13 864 protein-coding genes, is the most comprehensive evaluation of the interactions of cytobands participating in the formation of such rearrangements in cancer. The major conclusion is that although large G-negative, gene-rich bands are most frequently involved, the greatest impact was seen for staining properties. Thus, 60% of the recombinations leading to the formation of both translocations and fusion genes take place between two G-negative bands whereas only about 10% involve two G-positive bands. There is compelling evidence that G-negative bands contain more genes than dark staining bands and it has previously been shown that breakpoints involved in structural chromosome rearrangements and in gene fusions preferentially affect gene-rich bands. The present study not only corroborates these findings but in addition demonstrates that the recombination processes favor the joining of two G-negative cytobands and that this feature may be a stronger factor than gene content. It is reasonable to assume that the formation of translocations and fusion genes in cancer cells, irrespective of whether they have a pathogenetically significant impact or not, may be mediated by some underlying mechanisms that either favor the origin or provide a selective advantage for recombinations of G-negative cytobands.

A cloud-based resource for genome coordinate-based exploration and large-scale analysis of chromosome aberrations and gene fusions in cancer.

Cytogenetic analysis provides important information on the genetic mechanisms of cancer. The Mitelman Database of Chromosome Aberrations and Gene Fusions in Cancer (Mitelman DB) is the largest catalog of acquired chromosome aberrations, presently comprising >70 000 cases across multiple cancer types. Although this resource has enabled the identification of chromosome abnormalities leading to specific cancers and cancer mechanisms, a large-scale, systematic analysis of these aberrations and their downstream implications has been difficult due to the lack of a standard, automated mapping from aberrations to genomic coordinates. We previously introduced CytoConverter as a tool that automates such conversions. CytoConverter has now been updated with improved interpretation of karyotypes and has been integrated with the Mitelman DB, providing a comprehensive mapping of the 70 000+ cases to genomic coordinates, as well as visualization of the frequencies of chromosomal gains and losses. Importantly, all CytoConverter-generated genomic coordinates are publicly available in Google BigQuery, a cloud-based data warehouse, facilitating data exploration and integration with other datasets hosted by the Institute for Systems Biology Cancer Gateway in the Cloud (ISB-CGC) Resource. We demonstrate the use of BigQuery for integrative analysis of Mitelman DB with other cancer datasets, including a comparison of the frequency of imbalances identified in Mitelman DB cases with those found in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) copy number datasets. This solution provides opportunities to leverage the power of cloud computing for low-cost, scalable, and integrated analysis of chromosome aberrations and gene fusions in cancer.

Transcriptomics paving the way for improved diagnostics and precision medicine of acute leukemia.

Transcriptional profiling of acute leukemia, specifically by RNA-sequencing or whole transcriptome sequencing (WTS), has provided fundamental insights into its underlying disease biology and allows unbiased detection of oncogenic gene fusions, as well as of gene expression signatures that can be used for improved disease classification. While used as a research tool for many years, RNA-sequencing is becoming increasingly used in clinical diagnostics. Here, we highlight key transcriptomic studies of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) that have improved our biological understanding of these heterogeneous malignant disorders and have paved the way for translation into clinical diagnostics. Recent single-cell transcriptomic studies of ALL and AML, which provide new insights into the cellular ecosystem of acute leukemia and point to future clinical utility, are also reviewed. Finally, we discuss current challenges that need to be overcome for a more wide-spread adoption of RNA-sequencing in clinical diagnostics and how this technology significantly can aid the identification of genetic alterations in current guidelines and of newly emerging disease entities, some of which are critical to identify because of the availability of targeted therapies, thereby paving the way for improved precision medicine of acute leukemia.

Analysis of fusion transcripts indicates widespread deregulation of snoRNAs and their host genes in breast cancer.

Genomic rearrangements in cancer can join the sequences of two separate genes. Studies of such gene fusion events have mainly focused on identification of fusion proteins from the chimeric transcripts. We have previously investigated how fusions instead can affect the expression of intronic microRNA (miRNA) genes that are encoded within fusion gene partners. Here, we extend our analysis to small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) that also are embedded within protein-coding or noncoding host genes. We found that snoRNA hosts are selectively enriched in fusion transcripts, like miRNA host genes, and that this enrichment is associated with all snoRNA classes. These structural changes may have functional consequences for the cell; proteins involved in the protein translation machinery are overrepresented among snoRNA host genes, a gene architecture assumed to be needed for closely coordinated expression of snoRNAs and host proteins. Our data indicate that this structure is frequently disrupted in cancer. We furthermore observed that snoRNA genes involved in fusions tend to associate with stronger promoters than the natural host, suggesting a mechanism that selects for snoRNA overexpression. In summary, we highlight a previously unexplored frequent structural change in cancer that affects important components of cellular physiology.

Cancer chromosome breakpoints cluster in gene-rich genomic regions.

Cancer cells are characterized by chromosome abnormalities, of which some, in particular balanced rearrangements, are associated with distinct tumor entities and/or with specific gene rearrangements that represent important steps in the carcinogenic process. However, the vast majority of cytogenetically detectable structural aberrations in cancer cells have not been characterized at the nucleotide level; hence, their importance and functional consequences are unknown. By ascertaining the chromosomal breakpoints in 22 344 different clonal structural chromosome abnormalities identified in the karyotypes of 49 626 cases of neoplastic disorders we here show that the distribution of breakpoints is strongly associated (P < 0.0001) with gene content within the affected chromosomal bands. This association also remains highly significant in separate analyses of recurrent and nonrecurrent chromosome abnormalities as well as of specific subtypes of cancer (P < 0.0001 for all comparisons). In contrast, the impact of band length was negligible. The breakpoint distribution is thus not stochastic-gene-rich regions are preferentially affected. Several genomic features relating to transcription, replication, and chromatin organization have been found to enhance chromosome breakage frequencies; this indicates that gene-rich regions may be more break-prone. The salient finding in the present study is that a substantial fraction of all structural chromosome abnormalities, not only those specifically associated with certain tumor types, may affect genes that are pathogenetically important. If this interpretation is correct, then the prevailing view that the great majority of cancer chromosome aberrations is cytogenetic noise can be seriously questioned.

Most gene fusions in cancer are stochastic events.

Cancer-associated gene fusions resulting in chimeric proteins or aberrant expression of one or both partner genes are pathogenetically and clinically important in several hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. Since the advent of different types of massively parallel sequencing (MPS), the number of identified gene fusions has increased dramatically, prompting the question whether they all have a biologic impact. By ascertaining the chromosomal locations of 8934 genes involved in 10 861 gene fusions reported in the literature, we here show that there is a highly significant association between gene content of chromosomes and chromosome bands and number of genes involved in fusions. This strongly suggests that a clear majority of gene fusions detected by MPS are stochastic events associated with the number of genes available to participate in fusions and that most reported gene fusions are passengers without any pathogenetic importance.

Gene fusions in soft tissue tumors: Recurrent and overlapping pathogenetic themes.

Gene fusions have been described in approximately one-third of soft tissue tumors (STT); of the 142 different fusions that have been reported, more than half are recurrent in the same histologic subtype. These gene fusions constitute pivotal driver mutations, and detailed studies of their cellular effects have provided important knowledge about pathogenetic mechanisms in STT. Furthermore, most fusions are strongly associated with a particular histotype, serving as ideal molecular diagnostic markers. In recent years, it has also become apparent that some chimeric proteins, directly or indirectly, constitute excellent treatment targets, making the detection of gene fusions in STT ever more important. Indeed, pharmacological treatment of STT displaying fusions that activate protein kinases, such as ALK and ROS1, or growth factors, such as PDGFB, is already in clinical use. However, the vast majority (52/78) of recurrent gene fusions create structurally altered and/or deregulated transcription factors, and a small but growing subset develops through rearranged chromatin regulators. The present review provides an overview of the spectrum of currently recognized gene fusions in STT, and, on the basis of the protein class involved, the mechanisms by which they exert their oncogenic effect are discussed.

The impact of translocations and gene fusions on cancer causation.

Chromosome aberrations, in particular translocations and their corresponding gene fusions, have an important role in the initial steps of tumorigenesis; at present, 358 gene fusions involving 337 different genes have been identified. An increasing number of gene fusions are being recognized as important diagnostic and prognostic parameters in malignant haematological disorders and childhood sarcomas. The biological and clinical impact of gene fusions in the more common solid tumour types has been less appreciated. However, an analysis of available data shows that gene fusions occur in all malignancies, and that they account for 20% of human cancer morbidity. With the advent of new and powerful investigative tools that enable the detection of cytogenetically cryptic rearrangements, this proportion is likely to increase substantially.

Generation of trisomies in cancer cells by multipolar mitosis and incomplete cytokinesis.

One extra chromosome copy (i.e., trisomy) is the most common type of chromosome aberration in cancer cells. The mechanisms behind the generation of trisomies in tumor cells are largely unknown, although it has been suggested that dysfunction of the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) leads to an accumulation of trisomies through failure to correctly segregate sister chromatids in successive cell divisions. By using Wilms tumor as a model for cancers with trisomies, we now show that trisomic cells can form even in the presence of a functional SAC through tripolar cell divisions in which sister chromatid separation proceeds in a regular fashion, but cytokinesis failure nevertheless leads to an asymmetrical segregation of chromosomes into two daughter cells. A model for the generation of trisomies by such asymmetrical cell division accurately predicted several features of clones having extra chromosomes in vivo, including the ratio between trisomies and tetrasomies and the observation that different trisomies found in the same tumor occupy identical proportions of cells and colocalize in tumor tissue. Our findings provide an experimentally validated model explaining how multiple trisomies can occur in tumor cells that still maintain accurate sister chromatid separation at metaphase-anaphase transition and thereby physiologically satisfy the SAC.

Fusion genes and rearranged genes as a linear function of chromosome aberrations in cancer.

Cytogenetic aberrations have been reported in 45,000 human neoplasms. Structural balanced rearrangements are associated with distinct tumor subtypes with remarkable specificity and have been essential for identifying genes involved in tumorigenesis. All balanced rearrangements that have been characterized molecularly act by deregulating a gene in one of the breakpoints or by creating a fusion gene. Because most recurrent aberrations and rearranged genes have been found in hematological disorders, whereas numerous genomic imbalances have been identified in solid tumors, it has become generally accepted that there are pathogenetic differences between these neoplasms. We here show that in every tumor type, the numbers of recurrent balanced chromosome abnormalities, fusion genes and genes rearranged as a consequence of balanced aberrations are simply a function of the number of cases with an abnormal karyotype. Hence, there may not be any fundamental tissue-specific differences in the genetic mechanisms by which neoplasia is initiated.

Disease-associated patterns of disomic chromosomes in hyperhaploid neoplasms.

The chromosome number of human tumors varies widely, from near-haploidy to more than decaploidy. Overt hyperhaploid (24-34 chromosomes) tumors constitute a small minority (0.2-0.3% of cytogenetically investigated lesions), but occur in many different disease entities. In these karyotypes, most chromosomes are present in one copy; one or a few chromosomes are disomic. Published reports on 141 strictly hyperhaploid tumors, supplemented with nine previously unpublished cases, were used for evaluating the pattern of disomic chromosomes. Only one tumor type, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), was sufficiently common (n = 75) to allow proper evaluation; other neoplasms were lumped together in as reasonably logical groups as possible, including 10 myeloid leukemias (ML), nine plasma cell neoplasms (PCN), 13 chondrosarcomas (CS), 11 soft tissue tumors (STT), nine adeno- or squamous cell carcinomas (ASC), and eight tumors of the nervous system (TNS); the remaining 15 tumors could not be grouped. It was evident that the pattern of disomies is nonrandom. Moreover, unique signatures for each tumor group were detected. Among ALL, most disomies were independent of age and gender, except for disomy 10, which was overrepresented in females. Chromosome 21 was invariably disomic, whereas chromosome 17 was always monosomic. The most frequent disomies were two gonosomes in ML, chromosomes 7, 9, 11, 3, 18, and 19 in PCN, 7, 5, 20, 19, and 21 in CS, 20 in STT, 7 in ASC, and 1, 7, and 9 in TNS. Chromosome 1 was often partially disomic, due to unbalanced structural rearrangements, with segment 1q21-31 in common. Doubling of the hyperhaploid clone was found in at least one-third of the cases, apart from in ML where only one of 10 cases showed chromosome doubling. The present findings indicate that retention of disomy for some chromosomes is pathogenetically important and that the chromosome(s) maintained in two copies is related to cell type or histological context.

The correlation pattern of acquired copy number changes in 164 ETV6/RUNX1-positive childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemias.

The ETV6/RUNX1 fusion gene, present in 25% of B-lineage childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), is thought to represent an initiating event, which requires additional genetic changes for leukemia development. To identify additional genetic alterations, 24 ETV6/RUNX1-positive ALLs were analyzed using 500K single nucleotide polymorphism arrays. The results were combined with previously published data sets, allowing us to ascertain genomic copy number aberrations (CNAs) in 164 cases. In total, 45 recurrent CNAs were identified with an average number of 3.5 recurrent changes per case (range 0-13). Twenty-six percent of cases displayed a set of recurrent CNAs identical to that of other cases in the data set. The majority (74%), however, displayed a unique pattern of recurrent CNAs, indicating a large heterogeneity within this ALL subtype. As previously demonstrated, alterations targeting genes involved in B-cell development were common (present in 28% of cases). However, the combined analysis also identified alterations affecting nuclear hormone response (24%) to be a characteristic feature of ETV6/RUNX1-positive ALL. Studying the correlation pattern of the CNAs allowed us to highlight significant positive and negative correlations between specific aberrations. Furthermore, oncogenetic tree models identified ETV6, CDKN2A/B, PAX5, del(6q) and +16 as possible early events in the leukemogenic process.

HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) recommendations for the designation of gene fusions.

Gene fusions have been discussed in the scientific literature since they were first detected in cancer cells in the early 1980s. There is currently no standardized way to denote the genes involved in fusions, but in the majority of publications the gene symbols in question are listed either separated by a hyphen (-) or by a forward slash (/). Both types of designation suffer from important shortcomings. HGNC has worked with the scientific community to determine a new, instantly recognizable and unique separator-a double colon (::)-to be used in the description of fusion genes, and advocates its usage in all databases and articles describing gene fusions.

Frequent miRNA-convergent fusion gene events in breast cancer.

Studies of fusion genes have mainly focused on the formation of fusions that result in the production of hybrid proteins or, alternatively, on promoter-switching events that put a gene under the control of aberrant signals. However, gene fusions may also disrupt the transcriptional control of genes that are encoded in introns downstream of the breakpoint. By ignoring structural constraints of the transcribed fusions, we highlight the importance of a largely unexplored function of fusion genes. Here, we show, using breast cancer as an example, that miRNA host genes are specifically enriched in fusion genes and that many different, low-frequency, 5' partners may deregulate the same miRNA irrespective of the coding potential of the fusion transcript. These results indicate that the concept of recurrence, defined by the rate of functionally important aberrations, needs to be revised to encompass convergent fusions that affect a miRNA independently of transcript structure and protein-coding potential.Fusion gene research traditionally focuses on fusions that result in hybrid proteins or promoter switching events. Here, the authors demonstrate enrichment of fusions in miRNA host genes in breast cancer, highlighting that disparate fusions could have convergent impact on miRNA.

Power law distribution of chromosome aberrations in cancer.

Cancer cells are characterized by having aberrant chromosomes. The number of aberrations and the specific chromosomes affected are correlated with tumor progression. We show that for breast, colorectal, and renal cell carcinomas the distribution of the number of such aberrations per tumor follow a power law distribution with an exponent close to unity. We present two stochastic models that in simulation experiments result in power law distributions of the number of changes per tumor. The first model is based on a multiplicative fluctuation process and the second on a preferential attachment principle linked to an observation process, i.e., a tumor detection and treatment process. Because almost identical power law distributions are seen in breast, colorectal, and renal cell carcinomas we suggest that the obtained distributions are consequences of a common mechanism operating in malignant epithelial tumors.

Multivariate analysis of chromosomal imbalances in breast cancer delineates cytogenetic pathways and reveals complex relationships among imbalances.

More than 550 breast adenocarcinomas with clonal chromosomal abnormalities have been reported. Although the aberration pattern is clearly nonrandom, no specific primary or secondary karyotypic abnormality has been identified, and furthermore the chronological order in which the aberrations appear during disease progression is not well known. The high degree of karyotypic complexity in epithelial tumors such as breast cancer is one reason why our understanding of the sequential order of cytogenetic evolution is unclear. To overcome some of these difficulties, we have used several statistical methods that allow identification and interpretation of karyotypic pathways. These methods were applied on 538 breast cancer karyotypes. The distribution of the number of imbalances/tumor showed a monomodal appearance, indicating that one single mode of karyotypic evolution is operating in this tumor type. We show that there exists a temporal order with respect to the appearance of chromosomal imbalances. The imbalances +1pq, 1q-, 3p-, and +7 appear earlier than expected from random events, and two cytogenetic pathways, one initiated by +1q and followed by 11q- and -22, the other initiated by either 3p- or 1q- and followed by 1p-, 3q-, and 6q-, can be discerned. We also show that +7 and +8q behave independently of the other imbalances and cannot, by simple means, be incorporated in the identified pathway scheme. Although the cytogenetic pathways are well separated at earlier stages, they later converge and include a common set of late imbalances.

Ovarian carcinoma develops through multiple modes of chromosomal evolution.

Ovarian carcinoma has the highest mortality of all of the gynecologic cancers. The chromosomal changes in this tumor type are highly complex, and the karyotypes typically show severe aneuploidy. Despite the abundance of cytogenetic information, with approximately 400 published karyotypes, very little is known about the mode of karyotypic evolution and the possible presence of cytogenetic pathways related to tumor development. In the present investigation we used 387 ovarian carcinoma karyotypes to identify the most frequent genomic imbalances. Tumor cases were then classified with respect to the presence or absence of these imbalances and statistically analyzed to assess the order of appearance of chromosomal imbalances, as well as possible karyotypic pathways and cytogenetic subtypes. We establish the temporal order by which the different imbalances occur and show that at least two cytogenetic pathways exist, one characterized by +7, +8q, and +12, and one by 6q- and 1q-. We show that ovarian carcinomas develop through at least three phases of karyotypic evolution. At the early stages, Phase I, the karyotypic evolution seems to proceed though step-wise acquisition of changes. The transition to Phase II showed signs of an increased chromosomal instability, most probably caused by extensive telomere crisis and the onset of breakage-fusion-bridge cycles. This process was linked to the presence of imbalances characteristic for the 6q-/1q- pathway. The transition to Phase III involved triploidization and was also linked to the presence of the 6q-/1q- pathway.