Correlation Between p16/Ki-67 Expression and the Grade of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasias.

Interpretation of histopathology of cervical premalignant lesions suffers from marked interobserver variability due to its subjective nature. We aimed to evaluate the usefulness of the biomarkers p16 and Ki-67 in improving the diagnostic accuracy of cervical histopathology and assess the correlation between p16 expression and human papillomavirus test in different grades of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). Cervical tissue specimens with a diagnosis of CIN 1 or worse (CIN 1+) on hematoxylin and eosin staining were selected for immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining for p16 and Ki-67. The IHC slides were examined by a gynecologic pathologist along with a review of hematoxylin and eosin slides. The review histopathology diagnosis was used to correlate with the IHC results. We observed that the proportion of women with overexpression of p16 increased with increasing histologic severity: 0% in women with normal histology; 33.3% in women with CIN 1; 58.1% in women with CIN 2; and 73.8% in women with CIN 3. Among the human papillomavirus-positive women, 76.3% (58/76) women with CIN 2/CIN 3 expressed p16, and only 8.9% (4/45) women with normal histopathology or CIN 1 expressed the same. A combination of p16 positivity and abnormal expression of Ki-67 beyond the lower third of the epithelium was observed in 0% of normal/CIN 1 and 60.5% (40/66) of CIN 3 detected on routine histopathology. We concluded that dual staining could be used as an adjunctive test to improve the diagnostic accuracy of histopathology. In addition, p16/Ki-67 IHC has a role in guiding management decisions in cases with discordant colposcopy and histopathology diagnoses.

The impact and understanding of childhood drowning by a community in West Bengal, India, and the suggested preventive measures.

AIM: Our aim was to improve our understanding of the contextual factors contributing to child drowning in rural West Bengal, India. METHODS: This 2017 study used interviews, focus groups and observations and the participants included community leaders, household heads, parents and children aged 7-17 years from three remote villages. They included adults and children who had been directly affected by the loss of family members or friends. RESULTS: We conducted 19 in-depth interviews, six focus groups and three informal observations in public locations where people were exposed to water. The area contained a high number of natural open areas of water, which increased the drowning risk. Participants reported that children frequently played unsupervised near potentially hazardous water, as their parents worked long hours and there was a lack of safe recreational spaces. Suggested approaches to reducing the drowning risk included parental education to improve child supervision and establishing village committees to effectively communicate the drowning risks to local government. Low-cost, community-based approaches to improving child water safety need to be developed. CONCLUSION: Drowning was clearly a complex issue in rural West Bengal, with a significant impact on children and their families. Community-based approaches are clearly needed.

Risk of high-grade precancerous lesions and invasive cancers in high-risk HPV-positive women with normal cervix or CIN 1 at baseline-A population-based cohort study.

Infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) is transient and clears on its own in majority of the women. Only a few women who have persistent infection may finally develop cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) or cervical cancer in later years. The risk of progression in the HR-HPV-positive women with normal cervix or low-grade lesion on colposcopy and histopathology at baseline is less studied. We performed a longitudinal study on 650 HR-HPV-positive women with colposcopy and/or histopathology-proved normal or CIN1 diagnosis at baseline to assess the cumulative risk of development of high-grade CIN. After a mean follow-up of 2.1 person years of observation (PYO) (range 0.1-5.1), the cumulative incidence of CIN2+ (6.4%; 3.0/100 PYO) was significantly higher in women who had persistent HR-HPV infection compared to those who cleared the infection (adjusted HR 6.28; 95% CI 2.87-13.73). The risk of viral persistence in women aged 50-60 years was two times higher compared to women aged 40-49 years and three times higher compared to women aged 30-39 years. The probability of having persistent infection increased progressively with higher viral load at baseline (adjusted HR 3.29, 95% CI 2.21-4.90 for RLU ≥100; adjusted HR 2.69, 95% CI 1.71-4.22 for RLU 10-100). Women with increasing viral load at follow-up had four times higher risk of developing CIN2 or worse lesions as compared to those with decreasing load (20.9% vs 4.8%; p < 0.001). In the context of developing countries where cytology or genotyping triaging is not feasible, colposcopy referral of HR-HPV-positive women with advancing age, viral persistence, and increasing viral load may be considered.

HPV detection-based cervical cancer screening program in low-resource setting: lessons learnt from a community-based demonstration project in India.

PURPOSE: A demonstration project was conducted to assess feasibility of implementing HPV detection-based cervical cancer screening in primary care settings in India and to generate local evidence on feasibility and effectiveness of HPV detection in primary screening. METHODS: The project was implemented by setting up screening clinics at primary health centers. Eligible women were screened by HPV DNA test (Hybrid capture 2). All samples were processed and tested in a single laboratory. Colposcopy services were provided to screen-positive women at the same community clinics. Project utilized services of community health workers for community mobilization, recall of screen-positive and disease-positive women. Women with ≥CIN2 diagnosis were treated at tertiary hospital. RESULTS: Totally, 44,110 women were screened and HPV positivity was 4.7 %. Compliance to recall of HC2-positive women for colposcopy was 78 %. Detection rate of CIN3+ by HPV test was 3.9/1,000 women. Compliance of women to treatment was 80.1 %. However, compliance of HPV-positive women for follow-up at 1 year was poor (23.2 %). Concurrent use of VIA to screen the women did not have any advantage but increased number of unnecessary colposcopies and biopsies. CONCLUSIONS: Our project demonstrated that it was possible to implement HPV detection-based screening using existing primary healthcare infrastructure. Performing colposcopy at primary setting is feasible, improves compliance and reduces over-treatment. In settings with low to moderately high HPV prevalence, direct referral of HPV-positive women is advisable. Community health workers can be effectively used for recalling the positive women.

Evaluation of a compact, rechargeable, magnifying device to triage VIA and HPV positive women in a cervical cancer screening program in rural India.

PURPOSE: Many limited-resourced countries have either introduced cervical cancer screening programs or are contemplating to do so using visual inspection after acetic acid application (VIA) or human papillomavirus (HPV) detection tests. Both tests have high false-positivity and a suitable triaging strategy is required. Colposcopy triaging is not practicable in most resource-limited settings due to several reasons. We evaluated a portable, battery-operated, magnifying device (GynocularTM) to triage screen positive women in community setting in India. METHODS: Women positive on VIA or oncogenic HPV test were examined with Gynocular by clinicians in primary health clinics. Findings were documented using the International Federation for Cervical Pathology and Colposcopy (IFCPC) terminology. Swede score was also calculated. Biopsy was performed irrespective of Gynocular findings. The accuracy of Gynocular to detect high-grade lesions or cancer (HSIL+) was estimated. The suitability of Gynocular to correctly triage screen positive cases for immediate ablative treatment was also evaluated by creating simulated scenarios. RESULTS: Sensitivity and specificity of Gynocular were 96.4 and 47.1 %, respectively, to detect HSIL + at the threshold of IFCPC grade 1 findings. Increasing threshold to grade 2 changed sensitivity and specificity to 92.9 and 94.1 %, respectively. Optimum combination of sensitivity and specificity as determined by the receiver operating curve analysis was at the cut-off Swede score of 5. Triaging of VIA/HPV positive women to treatment using grade 2 criteria would have resulted in modest overtreatment and missing of very few high-grade lesions. CONCLUSION: Gynocular can be used as an effective triaging device for VIA/HPV positive women.

Sensitivity of APTIMA HPV E6/E7 mRNA test in comparison with hybrid capture 2 HPV DNA test for detection of high risk oncogenic human papillomavirus in 396 biopsy confirmed cervical cancers.

The sensitivity of E6/E7 mRNA-based Aptima HPV test (AHPV; Hologic, Inc.) for detection of cervical cancer has been reported based on only a small number of cases. We determined the sensitivity of AHPV in comparison with the DNA-based Hybrid Capture 2 HPV test (HC2; Qiagen) for the detection of oncogenic HPV in a large number of cervical cancers at the time of diagnosis using cervical samples obtained in ThinPrep (Hologic). Samples yielding discordant results were genotyped using Linear Array assay (LA; Roche). Of 396 cases tested, AHPV detected 377 (sensitivity, 95.2%; 95%CI: 93.1-97.3), and HC2 376 (sensitivity, 94.9%; 95%CI: 92.7-97.1) with an agreement of 97.2% (kappa 0.7; 95%CI: 0.54-0.87). Among six AHPV+/HC2- cases, LA identified oncogenic HPV types in four including a type 73 and was negative in two. Among five AHPV-/HC2+ cases, LA detected oncogenic HPV types in two including a type 73 and was negative in three. Of 14 AHPV-/HC2- cases, 13 were genotyped. LA detected oncogenic HPV types in six, non-oncogenic types in three, and was negative in four. This is the largest study to demonstrate the sensitivity of AHPV for the detection of invasive cervical cancer and this assay showed equal sensitivity to HC2.

Study of Correlation of Cervical Epithelial Thickness With the Grade of Colposcopic Abnormality.

Low epithelial thickness has been identified as the cause for nonvisualization of high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) on colposcopy in an earlier study. Multiple random biopsies are recommended by some authors to detect these "thin" CIN lesions in absence of colposcopic abnormalities. The present study was conducted to evaluate the correlation between the severity of colposcopic impression and the thickness of the epithelium so that the results of previous study could be validated. The cross-sectional study examined 209 histopathology slides with normal, human papillomavirus, or CIN diagnosis from a population-based study. Average epithelial thickness was measured by obtaining mean of the thicknesses at thinnest and thickest areas. Average thickness of dysplastic layer was also measured. These values were correlated with age, human papillomavirus status, colposcopic appearance and histopathology. Mean epithelial thicknesses were 212.8 µm for normal (N=28), 297.3 µm for human papillomavirus changes (N=48), 245.3 µm for CIN1 (N=46), 191.4 µm for CIN2 (N=50), and 218.5 µm for CIN3 (N=37). Within each histologic category, no correlation was observed between epithelial thickness and severity of colposcopic appearance. Mean epithelial thickness of CIN1/CIN2 lesions with normal colposcopy was more than that of CIN1/CIN2 lesions with high-grade appearance on colposcopy. Thickness of CIN3 lesions with high-grade abnormalities was higher than those without visible colposcopic abnormality but the difference was not statistically significant. Thickness of dysplasia increased with higher grades of CIN but did not have any relation to colposcopic appearance. Colposcopic appearance does not depend on the thickness of the epithelium affected by CIN. False-negative colposcopy in presence of high-grade CIN is likely due to failure of detecting small or predominantly endocervical lesions rather than "thin" CIN.

Diagnostic accuracy of VIA and HPV detection as primary and sequential screening tests in a cervical cancer screening demonstration project in India.

Visual inspection after acetic acid application (VIA) and human papillomavirus (HPV) detection tests have been recommended to screen women for cervical cancer in low and middle income countries. A demonstration project in rural India screened 39,740 women with both the tests to compare their accuracies in real population setting. The project also evaluated the model of screening women in the existing primary health care facilities, evaluating the screen positive women with colposcopy (and biopsy) in the same setup and recalling the women diagnosed to have disease for treatment at tertiary center. Accuracy of VIA and HPV test used sequentially was also studied. VIA was performed by trained health workers and Hybrid Capture II (HC II) assay was used for oncogenic HPV detection. Test positivity was 7.1% for VIA and 4.7% for HC II. Detection rate of CIN 3+ disease was significantly higher with HC II than VIA. Sensitivities of VIA and HC II to detect 162 histology proved CIN 3+ lesions were 67.9 and 91.2%, respectively after adjusting for verification bias. Specificity for the same disease outcome and verification bias correction was 93.2% for VIA and 96.9% for HC II. Triaging of VIA positive women with HPV test would have considerably improved the positive predictive value (4.0 to 37.5% to detect CIN 3+) without significant drop in sensitivity. All VIA positive women and 74.0% of HC II positive women had colposcopy. There was high compliance to treatment and significant stage-shift of the screen-detected cancers towards more early stage.

Study of accuracy of colposcopy in VIA and HPV detection-based cervical cancer screening program.

OBJECTIVE: This population-based study was conducted to evaluate the performance of colposcopy to assess women with positive visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and/or human papillomavirus (HPV) tests. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 30,773 women were screened by VIA and oncogenic HPV test. Hybrid capture 2 was used for oncogenic HPV detection. All VIA- and/or HPV-positive women and 8.7% test-negative women had the colposcopy. International Federation of Cervical Pathology & Colposcopy (IFCPC) 2011 nomenclature was used for colposcopic classification of abnormalities. All women with grade 1 or worse lesions had punch biopsies. Biopsies were also obtained from HPV-positive women with normal colposcopy. RESULTS: Colposcopy and satisfactory biopsy reports were available for total 2466 women. The overall strength of agreement between colposcopy and histologic classification of cervical neoplasias was poor (kappa = 0.17). Agreement was better when colposcopy was performed on HPV-positive women compared to VIA-positive women. Sensitivity of colposcopy to detect high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL) at referral threshold of grade 1 abnormality was 84.8% after correction of verification bias. Colposcopy was most inaccurate in identifying non-neoplastic conditions often encountered in VIA- and/or HPV-positive women. In 68.8% women with normal histology, colposcopic impression was grade 1 and above. Overestimation of disease severity on colposcopy was more common in VIA-positive women. Colposcopy also underestimated severity of disease in 52.6% of women with HSIL diagnosis on biopsy. CONCLUSIONS: Colposcopy performed well in the overall detection of cervical neoplasias, though its capability for accurate categorisation of degree of abnormality was poor.

Prevalence of high-risk human papillomavirus and cervical intraepithelial neoplasias in a previously unscreened population--a pooled analysis from three studies.

Population prevalence of human papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical intraepithelial neoplasias (CIN) is an important indicator to judge the disease burden in the community, to monitor the performance of cervical cancer screening program and to assess the impact of HPV vaccination program. India being a country without any cervical cancer screening program has no published data on the population prevalence of CIN and only a few large community-based studies to report the high-risk HPV prevalence. The objective of our study was to study HPV and CIN prevalence in a previously unscreened population. We pooled together the results of three research studies originally designed to assess the performance of visual inspection after acetic acid application and Hybrid Capture 2 (HC 2). Nearly 60% of the screened women had colposcopy irrespective of their screening test results. The diagnosis and grading of cervical neoplasias were based on histology. The age standardized prevalence of HPV by HC 2 test was 6.0%. Age-adjusted prevalence of CIN1 and CIN2 was 2.3% and 0.5%, respectively. The age-adjusted prevalence of CIN3 was 0.4% and that of invasive cancer was 0.2%. The prevalence of high-risk HPV was relatively low in the population we studied, which is reflected in the low prevalence of high-grade CIN. The prevalence of CIN3 remained constant across age groups due to absence of screening.

Interobserver agreement in the reporting of cervical biopsy specimens obtained from women screened by visual inspection with acetic acid and hybrid capture 2.

Visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and human papillomavirus detection have sensitivity higher than cytology but lower specificity. The high false-positive rate of either test poses a challenge to the colposcopists who obtain biopsies from the innocuous changes and to the pathologists who have to interpret large numbers of specimens that are either normal or have low-grade abnormalities. Interobserver variation in histopathologic interpretations of cervical punch biopsy specimens is high, specially for the lower-grade abnormalities. Use of the modified Bethesda system to report histology in place of the cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) system has the potential to reduce such variability as there are fewer categories. The present study aimed to assess the interobserver agreement to interpret cervical punch biopsies when both pathologists followed the modified Bethesda classification system and also when one pathologist followed the modified Bethesda classification system and the other followed the CIN classification system. Colposcopy-directed punch biopsies were obtained from VIA and/or Hybrid Capture 2-positive women. The Institute pathologist interpreted the slides using the CIN system. Blinded review was done by 2 external pathologists who independently interpreted cervical punch biopsies using the Bethesda system. The Institute pathologist's diagnoses based on CIN system were converted post hoc into categories belonging to the Bethesda system for comparison. The overall agreement was poor (κ=0.36). The lowest agreement was observed in the low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion category (κ=0.23) and the highest in the squamous cell carcinoma category (κ=0.76). The agreement between the reviewers, both of whom used the Bethesda system, was substantial.

Screening technologies for cervical cancer: Overview.

Ever since the introduction of the Papanicolaou (PAP) smear test was published in 1941 in American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, PAP test linked with definitive treatment has prevented millions of women from cervical cancer in the developed countries. Due to limited availability of resources, a lack of infrastructure and difficulty in getting highly trained professionals, widespread implementation of PAP test dependent cervical cancer screening program has not been established in low and middle income countries such as India. Therefore, after availability of non-cytological tests such as visual inspection on acetic acid (VIA) and human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA test, there is a paradigm shift in cervical cancer screening methods. In past two decades, various research work has convincingly established the utility of VIA and HPV test in developing countries. The evidences were evaluated by the World Health Organization (WHO) and recommendations have been recently published for comprehensive cervical cancer control strategies for the low and middle income countries. For any successful screening program, achieving high coverage (>70%) of the target population rather than frequent screening is the most important determinant. It is also equally important to ensure appropriate investigations of the screen positive women to establish the disease and treatment of the screen detected cases of cervical intra epithelial neoplasia (CIN) and cancer. HPV testing is the WHO recommended test for cervical cancer screening especially in view of widespread HPV vaccination in young population leading to lower prevalence of CIN and other HPV related diseases.

Role of colposcopy in the management of women with abnormal cytology.

Cytology identifies the women who are at higher risk of harboring high-grade cervical premalignant lesions or invasive cancer. However, a diagnostic test such as colposcopy is crucial for women with abnormal cytology for localization of the abnormality, confirmation of diagnosis, and appropriate management. To standardize this subjective technique and to minimize the interobserver variations, Swede scoring system was introduced. The revised colposcopic nomenclature of the International Federation of Cervical Pathology and Colposcopy in 2011 included various normal and abnormal colposcopic findings and gives a description of colposcopic features which improves its accuracy over the colposcopic indices. There is consensus agreement that cytology indicative of high-grade lesions (ASC-H and HSIL in the Bethesda system) should engender immediate referral for colposcopy and biopsy. The management of women who have equivocal or borderline cytology of low-grade abnormalities (ASCUS/LSIL) is still under deliberation. It is generally agreed to have an HPV triage for women with equivocal cytology. Based on the latest recommendations, the current chapter provides an extensive overview of the role of colposcopy in the management of women with various abnormalities reported on Pap smear.

Acceptability of human papillomavirus vaccine among the urban, affluent and educated parents of young girls residing in Kolkata, Eastern India.

AIM: The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine is recommended for adolescent girls and young women; however, the social structure in India will not permit vaccination of this age-group without parental approval. Our study aimed to explore the attitude of affluent, urban Indian parents towards the HPV vaccine. METHODS: Well-to-do married couples with at least one daughter between 9-26 years of age were interviewed using a questionnaire in two parts. The first part was to assess their attitude to vaccination in general and their knowledge of cervical cancer; the second part was to assess their acceptance of the HPV vaccine. An educational fact sheet about cervical cancer and the HPV vaccine was administered in between the two parts. RESULTS: Of the 522 participants, 27% of men and 24% of women agreed to vaccinate their daughters against a cancer initially. After going through the fact sheet, 74% of both men and women were in favor of vaccination. CONCLUSIONS: The HPV vaccine seems to be well accepted among this subgroup of population if appropriately educated.

A Prospective Randomized Trial to Compare Safety, Acceptability and Efficacy of Thermal Ablation and Cryotherapy in a Screen and Treat Setting.

BACKGROUND: The prospective randomized study aimed to compare the safety, acceptability and efficacy of thermal ablation (TA) to that of cryotherapy in screen and treat setting. METHODS: The participants were recruited prospectively in a community-based screening clinic in India. Women positive on visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) test and/or Human Papillomavirus (HPV) test were assessed for eligibility for ablative treatment. Total 286 eligible women were randomized to receive either cryotherapy (N=150) or TA (N=136) performed by health workers. Colposcopy and cervical biopsy were performed on all, prior to treatment. Post-treatment follow-up was after one year with colposcopy and biopsy. RESULTS: Both the treatment methods had high acceptability. Significantly higher proportion of women treated by cryotherapy reported pain compared to women treated by TA, though intensity was mild in vast majority of them. Approximately 30% of women in both arms had histologic abnormalities, mainly CIN 1, and among those who attended follow-up 74.1% and 81.0% didn't have any CIN after cryotherapy and TA respectively. CONCLUSION: TA is as acceptable and safe as cryotherapy in screen and treat setting. TA has the logistic advantages for the low-resourced settings as the machines are more portable, do not require costly refrigerant gas and battery-driven models are available. The cure rates for CIN 1+ lesions in our study were comparable between cryotherapy and TA.

Secondary prevention of cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer affects women in their reproductive ages. Screening is an important secondary prevention strategy. The long process of carcinogenic transformation from human papillomavirus (HPV) infection to invasive cancer provides ample opportunities to detect the disease at a stage when treatment is highly effective. Suitable screening tests are cytology, visual inspection after acetic acid application and HPV detection tests. Evidence of effectiveness of the tests to reduce cervical cancer mortality and the cost-effectiveness of screening programs have been demonstrated. Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 2 and grade 3 are the high-grade cervical cancer precursors and need to be treated. Treatment is safe and effective with ablative or excisional techniques. The World Health Organization recommends screening women at least once in a lifetime between 30 and 49 years of age and ensuring effective treatment of the detected abnormalities. Combination of HPV vaccination and population-based screening will be instrumental in eliminating cervical cancer.

Association between high risk human papillomavirus infection and co-infection with Candida spp. and Trichomonas vaginalis in women with cervical premalignant and malignant lesions.

BACKGROUND: Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the necessary cause of cervical cancer. Cervico-vaginal infection with pathogens like Chlamydia is a likely cofactor. The interactions between HPV, Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) and Candida spp. are less understood, though inflammation induced by these pathogens has been demonstrated to facilitate oncogenesis. OBJECTIVE: Our study aimed to evaluate the association between Candida spp. and TV co-infection with HPV in cervical oncogenesis. STUDY DESIGN: Women with normal cervix who were high-risk HPV-negative (N=104) and HPV-positive (N=105); women with CIN 1 (N=106) and CIN 2/CIN 3 (N=62) were recruited from a community based cervical cancer screening program. Cervical cancer patients (N=106) were recruited from a tertiary care oncology clinic. High-risk HPV was detected by Hybrid Capture II technique; Candida spp. and TV were detected by culturing the high vaginal swabs followed by microscopic examination in all. The disease status was established by histopathology in all the women. RESULT: HPV-positive women had significantly higher risk of having precursor lesions (of any grade) and cancer compared to HPV-negative women. Candida spp. or TV infection did not alter the risk of low grade or high grade lesions among HPV- positive women. HPV positive women co-infected with TV had higher risk of cervical cancer but not those co-infected with Candida spp. CONCLUSION: The higher risk of cancer observed in the women co-infected with HPV and TV without any enhanced risk of CIN 3 suggests secondary infection of the malignant growth by TV rather than any causal role. Co-infection with Candida spp. and/or TV infection did not increase the carcinogenic effect of HPV on cervix.

Cervical screening by visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) is well accepted by women--results from a community-based study in rural India.

OBJECTIVE: Among the low cost alternative screening tests Visual Inspection after Acetic Acid Application (VIA) has been found to be most promising. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the safety and acceptability of VIA done by health workers among rural Indian women. We also evaluated the level of women's satisfaction with the screening program. METHODS: Women residing in a defined geographic area were offered cervical screening using VIA by trained health workers. Women testing positive were colposcoped by a medical officer at the same sitting. Based on the feedback from a few focus group discussions a structured questionnaire was designed to interview the women after screening. A total of 498 women were selected randomly from the screened women for interview by a social worker. Besides enquiring about any discomfort they faced during or within seven days after screening, the women were also asked to indicate their level of satisfaction with the service. Their opinions to improve the quality of service were also sought. RESULTS: Most women reported no pain or only slight discomfort during screening (94.2%). The most common complaint after screening was vaginal discharge (12%). A burning sensation in the vagina was experienced by some of the women (5.8%). These complaints were mild and short-lasting in majority of cases. Most of the women were satisfied with the screening service (94.6% selected the top three of a six-point response scale) and 97% said they would recommend the test to others. The most common reasons for dissatisfaction with screening were discomfort during or after screening, long waiting time and failure to get treatment for other medical problems. CONCLUSION: VIA by trained health workers followed by colposcopy at the same sitting is an acceptable screening algorithm for Indian women. A VIA based screening program has to be integrated to the existing primary health care facility in developing countries.

Implications of semi-quantitative HPV viral load estimation by Hybrid capture 2 in colposcopy practice.

OBJECTIVE: High viral load of oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) significantly increases risk of CIN 2 or worse (CIN 2+) lesions. Semi-quantitative estimation of oncogenic HPV viral load by Hybrid Capture 2 (HC2) correlates well with viral load estimated by real-time polymerase chain reaction. We correlated viral load estimated by HC2 with colposcopy and histology diagnosis, to determine if high viral load could detect the CIN 2+ lesions missed by colposcopy in HPV positive women. METHODS: Using HPV testing by HC2, 39,728 women were screened. Positive results were categorized into low-positive, intermediate, and high viral load groups, based on relative light unit/cut-off ratios. HPV-positive and some HPV-negative women underwent colposcopy and biopsy. RESULTS: A total of 278 CIN 2+ lesions were detected. Detection rate of CIN 2+ was significantly higher in intermediate and high viral load groups. Nearly half (48.3%) of CIN 2+ and 80.4% of CIN 3+ lesions missed or under-diagnosed by colposcopy had viral load in intermediate to high ranges. Risk of CIN 2+ in the high viral load group was 46 times higher than HPV-negative women, even when colposcopy was apparently normal. DISCUSSION: Women with intermediate or high viral load should have multiple punch biopsies, even if colposcopy is apparently normal or suggests low grade lesions. Women with high viral load and suspected low grade lesion on colposcopy may be considered for 'see-and-treat', as their risk of CIN 2+ is nearly 200 times higher than HPV-negative women.

Concordance between hybrid capture 2 results performed on cervical samples obtained before and immediately after visual inspection with acetic Acid test.

BACKGROUND: VIA is a simple, inexpensive test widely advocated for resource-limited settings. Major limitation of VIA is its low specificity. HPV DNA testing can be used to triage VIA-positive women if the facilities are available. The major concern for such strategy would be whether sample collection after acetic acid wash will alter HPV test characteristics. This study aimed to evaluate whether samples for HPV testing by Hybrid Capture 2 (HC2) technology can be collected immediately after VIA without altering test performance. METHODS: Total 204 VIA-positive women were recruited. Cervical samples were collected for HC2 test before and after VIA at the same sitting by the same provider. The paired samples were analyzed at the same laboratory by the same technician in the same batch of testing. Agreement in HC2 results between pre-VIA and post-VIA samples was estimated using kappa statistics. All women had colposcopy and biopsies were obtained if colposcopy was suspicious of neoplasia. Sensitivity and specificity of HC2 test in detecting CIN2+ lesions were calculated using negative colposcopy or biopsy as the gold standard and were compared between the pre and post VIA samples. RESULTS: Almost perfect agreement in HC2 results (kappa=0.85) and RLU/Cut off ratios (correlation coefficient=0.92) was observed between samples collected before and after VIA. The sensitivity and specificity to detect CIN2+ lesions remained unaltered even when cervical samples were collected after VIA. This confirmed that acetic acid wash did not alter HC2 performance. CONCLUSIONS: Collection of samples for HC2 test is feasible immediately after VIA.