White adipose tissue remodeling in Little Brown Myotis (Myotis lucifugus) with white-nose syndrome.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is a fungal wildlife disease of bats that has caused precipitous declines in certain Nearctic bat species. A key driver of mortality is premature exhaustion of fat reserves, primarily white adipose tissue (WAT), that bats rely on to meet their metabolic needs during winter. However, the pathophysiological and metabolic effects of WNS have remained ill-defined. To elucidate metabolic mechanisms associated with WNS mortality, we infected a WNS susceptible species, the Little Brown Myotis (Myotis lucifugus), with Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd) and collected WAT biopsies for histology and targeted lipidomics. These results were compared to the WNS-resistant Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus). A similar distribution in broad lipid class was observed in both species, with total WAT primarily consisting of triacylglycerides. Baseline differences in WAT chemical composition between species showed that higher glycerophospholipids (GPs) levels in E. fuscus were dominated by unsaturated or monounsaturated moieties and n-6 (18:2, 20:2, 20:3, 20:4) fatty acids. Conversely, higher GP levels in M. lucifugus WAT were primarily compounds containing n-3 (20:5 and 22:5) fatty acids. Following Pd-infection, we found that perturbation to WAT reserves occurs in M. lucifugus, but not in the resistant E. fuscus. A total of 66 GPs (primarily glycerophosphocholines and glycerophosphoethanolamines) were higher in Pd-infected M. lucifugus, indicating perturbation to the WAT structural component. In addition to changes in lipid chemistry, smaller adipocyte sizes and increased extracellular matrix deposition was observed in Pd-infected M. lucifugus. This is the first study to describe WAT GP composition of bats with different susceptibilities to WNS and highlights that recovery from WNS may require repair from adipose remodeling in addition to replenishing depot fat during spring emergence.

Blue Waters, Green Bottoms: Benthic Filamentous Algal Blooms Are an Emerging Threat to Clear Lakes Worldwide.

Nearshore (littoral) habitats of clear lakes with high water quality are increasingly experiencing unexplained proliferations of filamentous algae that grow on submerged surfaces. These filamentous algal blooms (FABs) are sometimes associated with nutrient pollution in groundwater, but complex changes in climate, nutrient transport, lake hydrodynamics, and food web structure may also facilitate this emerging threat to clear lakes. A coordinated effort among members of the public, managers, and scientists is needed to document the occurrence of FABs, to standardize methods for measuring their severity, to adapt existing data collection networks to include nearshore habitats, and to mitigate and reverse this profound structural change in lake ecosystems. Current models of lake eutrophication do not explain this littoral greening. However, a cohesive response to it is essential for protecting some of the world's most valued lakes and the flora, fauna, and ecosystem services they sustain.

Revealing paraphyly and placement of extinct species within Epischura (Copepoda: Calanoida) using molecular data and quantitative morphometrics.

Epischura (Calanoida: Temoridae) is a Holarctic group of copepods serving important ecological roles, but it is difficult to study because of small range sizes of individual species and widespread distribution of the genus. This genus includes Tertiary relicts, some endemic to single, isolated lakes and can play major roles in unique ecosystems like Lakes Baikal and Tahoe. We present the first molecular and morphological analysis of Epischura that reveals their spatio-temporal evolutionary history. Morphological measurements of mandibles and genetics estimated phylogenetic relationships among all species represented in Epischura, including E. massachusettsensis, whose extinction status is of concern. Analyses used three gene regions for six previously unsequenced species to infer highly-resolved and well-supported phylogenies confirming a split between Siberian and North American species. Previously published age estimates and sequence data from broad taxonomic sampling of calanoid copepods estimated divergence times between the two Epischura groups. Divergence time estimates for Epischura were consistent with earlier molecular clock estimates and late-Miocene cooling events. Additionally, we provide the first taxonomically broad estimates of divergence times within Calanoida. The paraphyletic nature of the genus Epischura (and the family Temoridae) is apparent and requires the resurrection of the genus Epischurella (Smirnov, 1936) to describe the Siberian species.

Higher fat stores contribute to persistence of little brown bat populations with white-nose syndrome.

The persistence of populations declining from novel stressors depends, in part, on their ability to respond by trait change via evolution or plasticity. White-nose syndrome (WNS) has caused rapid declines in several North America bat species by disrupting hibernation behaviour, leading to body fat depletion and starvation. However, some populations of Myotis lucifugus now persist with WNS by unknown mechanisms. We examined whether persistence of M. lucifigus with WNS could be explained by increased body fat in early winter, which would allow bats to tolerate the increased energetic costs associated with WNS. We also investigated whether bats were escaping infection or resistant to infection as an alternative mechanism explaining persistence. We measured body fat in early and late winter during initial WNS invasion and 8 years later at six sites where bats are now persisting. We also measured infection prevalence and intensity in persisting populations. Infection prevalence was not significantly lower than observed in declining populations. However, at two sites, infection loads were lower than observed in declining populations. Body fat in early winter was significantly higher in four of the six persisting populations than during WNS invasion. Physiological models of energy use indicated that these higher fat stores could reduce WNS mortality by 58%-70%. These results suggest that differences in fat storage and infection dynamics have reduced the impacts of WNS in many populations. Increases in body fat provide a potential mechanism for management intervention to help conserve bat populations.

Long-Term and Ontogenetic Patterns of Heavy Metal Contamination in Lake Baikal Seals (Pusa sibirica).

Little is known about the history of heavy metal pollution of Russia's Lake Baikal, one of the world's largest lakes and a home to numerous endemic species, including the Baikal Seal, Pusa sibirica. We investigated the history of heavy metal (V, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg, Tl, Pb, U) pollution in Lake Baikal seals over the past 8 decades. C and N stable isotope analysis (SIA) and laser-ablation ICP-MS of seal teeth were used to examine changes in feeding ecology, heavy metal levels associated with life history events and long-term variation in metal exposure. SIA did not suggest large changes in the feeding ecology of Baikal seals over the past 80 years. LA-ICP-MS analyses revealed element-specific ontogenetic variability in metal concentrations, likely related to maternal transfer, changes in food sources and starvation. Hg and Cd levels in seals varied significantly across the time series, with concentrations peaking in the 1960s - 1970s but then declining to contemporary levels similar to those observed in the 1930s and 1940s. Trends in atmospheric emissions of Hg suggest that local sources as well as emissions from eastern Russia and Europe may be important contributors of Hg to Lake Baikal and that, despite the size of Lake Baikal, its food web appears to respond rapidly to changing inputs of contaminants.

Improving Primary Care Retention in Medically Underserved Areas: What's a Clinic to Do?

To reduce health professional shortage areas, the National Health Service Corps has attempted to increase the number of primary care providers in underserved communities through scholarships and loan repayment. Program evaluations assessed Loan Repayment Program (LRP) propensity to work in underserved communities. The National Health Service Corps LRPs were asked about preferences for particular retention strategies and which strategies were utilized by their clinical sites. Loan Repayment Programs were asked to rank retention strategies. Loan Repayment Program top choices were competitive salary, 88%; professional development, 70%; knowledgeable/competent support staff, 59%, and professional support, 58%. Loan Repayment Programs were also asked to rank retention strategies provided by their clinical sites: professional development, 74.2%; competitive salary, 71.2%; policies that prohibit abusive behavior, 63.6%, and knowledgeable/competent support staff, 60.6%. Loan Repayment Programs indicated professional support was an important retention element. However, when asked if professional support opportunities were offered, LRP indicated that these were not in the strategies offered by sites.

Multicultural Differences in Women's Expectations of Birth.

This review surveyed qualitative and quantitative studies to explore the expectations around birth that are held by women from different cultures. These studies are grouped according to expectations of personal control expectations of support from partner/others/family; expectations of carel behavior from providers such as nurses, doctors, and/or midwives; expectations about the health of the baby; and expectations about pain in childbirth. Discussed are the findings and the role that Western culture in medicine, power and privilege are noted in providing care to these women.

Mercury in bats from the northeastern United States.

This study examines mercury exposure in bats across the northeast U.S. from 2005 to 2009. We collected 1,481 fur and 681 blood samples from 8 states and analyzed them for total Hg. A subset (n = 20) are also analyzed for methylmercury (MeHg). Ten species of bats from the northeast U.S. are represented in this study of which two are protected by the Endangered Species Act (ESA 1973) and two other species are pending review. There are four objectives in this paper: (1) to examine correlates to differences in fur-Hg levels among all of the sampling sites, including age, sex, species, and presence of a Hg point source; (2) define the relationship between blood and fur-Hg levels and the factors that influence that relationship including age, sex, species, reproductive status, and energetic condition; (3) determine the relationships between total Hg and MeHg in five common eastern bat species; and (4) assess the distribution of Hg across bat populations in the northeast. We found total blood and fur mercury was eight times higher in bats captured near point sources compared to nonpoint sources. Blood-Hg and fur-Hg were well correlated with females on average accumulating two times more Hg in fur than males. On average fur MeHg accounted for 86 % (range 71-95 %) of the total Hg in bat fur. Considering that females had high Hg concentrations, beyond that of established levels of concern, suggests there could be negative implications for bat populations from high Hg exposure since Hg is readily transferred to pups via breast milk. Bats provide an integral part of the ecosystem and their protection is considered to be of high priority. More research is needed to determine if Hg is a stressor that is negatively impacting bat populations.

Interannual Survival of Myotis lucifugus (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) near the Epicenter of White-Nose Syndrome.

Reduced populations of Myotis lucifugus (Little Brown Myotis) devastated by white-nose syndrome (WNS) persist in eastern North America. Between 2009 and 2013, we recaptured 113 marked individuals that survived between 1 and 6 winters in New England since the arrival of WNS. We also observed signs of reproductive success in 57 recaptured bats.

The evolution of antimicrobial peptides in Chiroptera.

High viral tolerance coupled with an extraordinary regulation of the immune response makes bats a great model to study host-pathogen evolution. Although many immune-related gene gains and losses have been previously reported in bats, important gene families such as antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) remain understudied. We built an exhaustive bioinformatic pipeline targeting the major gene families of defensins and cathelicidins to explore AMP diversity and analyze their evolution and distribution across six bat families. A combination of manual and automated procedures identified 29 AMP families across queried species, with α-, ß-defensins, and cathelicidins representing around 10% of AMP diversity. Gene duplications were inferred in both α-defensins, which were absent in five species, and three ß-defensin gene subfamilies, but cathelicidins did not show significant shifts in gene family size and were absent in Anoura caudifer and the pteropodids. Based on lineage-specific gains and losses, we propose diet and diet-related microbiome evolution may determine the evolution of α- and ß-defensins gene families and subfamilies. These results highlight the importance of building species-specific libraries for genome annotation in non-model organisms and shed light on possible drivers responsible for the rapid evolution of AMPs. By focusing on these understudied defenses, we provide a robust framework for explaining bat responses to pathogens.

Increasing student success through in-class resilience education.

Student performance can be affected by internal and external stressors, so we explored the effects of an experiential psychiatric/mental health nursing class designed to present methods of stress reduction. Mixed methods to assess the effects of experiential learning about self-care in a baccalaureate psychiatric nursing class were used with 113 nursing students. Students were exposed in class each week to one of 6 techniques: deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, mindfulness & exercise, aromatherapy, guided imagery, and yoga. Students used the method at home and journaled about the experience weekly. Journals and free-text responses from a post-intervention assessment were examined with qualitative content analysis. The Beck Anxiety Inventory, the Ten-Item Personality Inventory, and the Skovholt Practitioner Professional Resiliency and Self-Care inventory were used. Moderate to strong negative correlations between emotional stability (Ten-Item) and anxiety scores (Beck) was seen. Themes included physical/emotional effects of stress, lack of control during nursing school, and fears about communicating with psychiatric patients. Preferred coping methods were easy to perform, portable, and low cost; students used them to alleviate anxiety and promote relaxation before sleep. Family/friend support and self-care promoted professional vitality. Lack of time for self-care, sleep problems, and financial problems were negatives for students.

Emerging diseases in Chiroptera: why bats?

A conference entitled '2nd International Berlin Bat Meeting: Bat Biology and Infectious Diseases' was held between the 19 and 21 of February 2010 in Berlin, Germany. Researchers from two major disciplines, bat biologists and disease specialists, met for the first time in an interdisciplinary event to share their knowledge about bat-associated diseases. The focus of the meeting was to understand why in particular bats are the hosts of so many of the most virulent diseases globally. During several sessions, key note speakers and participants discussed infectious diseases associated with bats, including viral diseases caused by Henipa-, Filo-, Corona- and Lyssaviruses, the spread of white-nose syndrome in North American bats, bat immunology/immunogenetics, bat parasites, and finally, conservation and human health issues.

Birth Observation Among African American Women Prior to Pregnancy.

A focused ethnography among African American college students who had observed a live birth prior to their own pregnancy was pursued. Women described two reasons to attend births: curiosity about birth, or a desire to support the birth mother. Women attended the births of friends, family members, or saw their mother give birth to a younger sibling. Themes included pain, operative or traumatic birth, and surprise at the length and/or stages of labor. Some language suggested lingering trauma. Future expectations included painful labor, operative birth or damage, or traumatic labor and birth. Other women felt closer to the infant, or felt more prepared for their own births after observing birth. Prior personal experiences at birth should be explored prenatally.

Social control or protection of the child? The debates on the Industrial Schools Acts 1857-1894.

Industrial schools were the first state-funded institutions for the protection of children. The debates surrounding their establishment and enlargement illuminate a unique relationship between the state, the family, and the child. From the 1850s and 1860s when the state first began to grapple with the notion of intervening in family privacy, to the 1870s and 1880s when the concept and boundaries of childhood were affirmed, the protection of children from want and neglect was the motivation behind the institutions. Industrial schools were the state's solution to the care of children until fin-de-siècle England saw their popularity wane. Twentieth-century child policy has subsequently promoted family, rather than child, protection.

Past and present mercury accumulation in the Lake Baikal seal: Temporal trends, effects of life history, and toxicological implications.

Despite global efforts to reduce anthropogenic mercury (Hg) emissions, the timescale and degree to which Hg concentrations in the environment and biota respond to decreased emissions remain challenging to assess or predict. In the present study we characterize long-term trends and life-history patterns in Hg accumulation and toxicological implications of Hg contamination for a freshwater seal from one of the world's largest lakes (Lake Baikal, Siberia, Russia) using contemporary tissues and archival teeth. Stable isotope analysis and Hg analyses of soft tissues (muscle, liver, kidney, blood, brain, heart) and teeth from 22 contemporary seals revealed rapid changes in diet and Hg accumulation in the first year of life with a stable diet and increase in tissue Hg throughout the rest of life. Although maternal transfer of Hg was an important source of Hg to seal pups, reproduction and lactation by female seals did not appear to result in sex-related differences in Hg concentrations or age-related accumulation in adult seals. Based on Hg analysis of archival teeth (n = 114) and reconstructed values for soft tissues, we also assessed temporal trends in seal Hg between the years 1960 and 2013. Seal Hg concentrations in hard (teeth) and soft (e.g., muscle, liver) tissues were highest in the 1960s and 1970s, followed by a decrease. The decline in seal Hg concentrations in recent decades was most likely driven by a reduction in Hg inputs to the lake, suggesting that global and regional efforts to reduce Hg emissions have been successful at reducing ecosystem and human health risks posed by Hg in Lake Baikal. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:1476-1486. © 2018 SETAC.

Energy conserving thermoregulatory patterns and lower disease severity in a bat resistant to the impacts of white-nose syndrome.

The devastating bat fungal disease, white-nose syndrome (WNS), does not appear to affect all species equally. To experimentally determine susceptibility differences between species, we exposed hibernating naïve little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus) and big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) to the fungus that causes WNS, Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd). After hibernating under identical conditions, Pd lesions were significantly more prevalent and more severe in little brown myotis. This species difference in pathology correlates with susceptibility to WNS in the wild and suggests that survival is related to different host physiological responses. We observed another fungal infection, associated with neutrophilic inflammation, that was equally present in all bats. This suggests that both species are capable of generating a response to cold tolerant fungi and that Pd may have evolved mechanisms for evading host responses that are effective in at least some bat species. These host-pathogen interactions are likely mediated not just by host physiological responses, but also by host behavior. Pd-exposed big brown bats, the less affected species, spent more time in torpor than did control animals, while little brown myotis did not exhibit this change. This differential thermoregulatory response to Pd infection by big brown bat hosts may allow for a more effective (or less pathological) immune response to tissue invasion.

The rise and fall of plankton: long-term changes in the vertical distribution of algae and grazers in Lake Baikal, Siberia.

Both surface water temperatures and the intensity of thermal stratification have increased recently in large lakes throughout the world. Such physical changes can be accompanied by shifts in plankton community structure, including changes in relative abundances and depth distributions. Here we analyzed 45 years of data from Lake Baikal, the world's oldest, deepest, and most voluminous lake, to assess long-term trends in the depth distribution of pelagic phytoplankton and zooplankton. Surface water temperatures in Lake Baikal increased steadily between 1955 and 2000, resulting in a stronger thermal gradient within the top 50 m of the water column. In conjunction with these physical changes our analyses reveal significant shifts in the daytime depth distribution of important phytoplankton and zooplankton groups. The relatively heavy diatoms, which often rely on mixing to remain suspended in the photic zone, shifted downward in the water column by 1.90 m y(-1), while the depths of other phytoplankton groups did not change significantly. Over the same time span the density-weighted average depth of most major zooplankton groups, including cladocerans, rotifers, and immature copepods, exhibited rapid shifts toward shallower positions (0.57-0.75 m y(-1)). As a result of these depth changes the vertical overlap between herbivorous copepods (Epischura baikalensis) and their algal food appears to have increased through time while that for cladocerans decreased. We hypothesize that warming surface waters and reduced mixing caused these ecological changes. Future studies should examine how changes in the vertical distribution of plankton might impact energy flow in this lake and others.

Hibernating little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus) show variable immunological responses to white-nose syndrome.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is an emerging infectious disease devastating hibernating North American bat populations that is caused by the psychrophilic fungus Geomyces destructans. Previous histopathological analysis demonstrated little evidence of inflammatory responses in infected bats, however few studies have compared other aspects of immune function between WNS-affected and unaffected bats. We collected bats from confirmed WNS-affected and unaffected sites during the winter of 2008-2009 and compared estimates of their circulating levels of total leukocytes, total immunoglobulins, cytokines and total antioxidants. Bats from affected and unaffected sites did not differ in their total circulating immunoglobulin levels, but significantly higher leukocyte counts were observed in bats from affected sites and particularly in affected bats with elevated body temperatures (above 20°C). Bats from WNS-affected sites exhibited significantly lower antioxidant activity and levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4), a cytokine that induces T cell differentiation. Within affected sites only, bats exhibiting visible fungal infections had significantly lower antioxidant activity and levels of IL-4 compared to bats without visible fungal infections. Overall, bats hibernating in WNS-affected sites showed immunological changes that may be evident of attempted defense against G. destructans. Observed changes, specifically elevated circulating leukocytes, may also be related to the documented changes in thermoregulatory behaviors of affected bats (i.e. increased frequencies in arousal from torpor). Alterations in immune function may reflect expensive energetic costs associated with these processes and intrinsic qualities of the immunocapability of hibernating bats to clear fungal infections. Additionally, lowered antioxidant activity indicates a possible imbalance in the pro- versus antioxidant system, may reflect oxidative tissue damage, and should be investigated as a contributor to WNS-associated morbidity and mortality.

Influence of long-distance climate teleconnection on seasonality of water temperature in the world's largest lake--Lake Baikal, Siberia.

Large-scale climate change is superimposed on interacting patterns of climate variability that fluctuate on numerous temporal and spatial scales--elements of which, such as seasonal timing, may have important impacts on local and regional ecosystem forcing. Lake Baikal in Siberia is not only the world's largest and most biologically diverse lake, but it has exceptionally strong seasonal structure in ecosystem dynamics that may be dramatically affected by fluctuations in seasonal timing. We applied time-frequency analysis to a near-continuous, 58-year record of water temperature from Lake Baikal to examine how seasonality in the lake has fluctuated over the past half century and to infer underlying mechanisms. On decadal scales, the timing of seasonal onset strongly corresponds with deviation in the zonal wind intensity as described by length of day (LOD); on shorter scales, these temperature patterns shift in concert with the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Importantly, the connection between ENSO and Lake Baikal is gated by the cool and warm periods of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). Large-scale climatic phenomena affecting Siberia are apparent in Lake Baikal surface water temperature data, dynamics resulting from jet stream and storm track variability in central Asia and across the Northern Hemisphere.

Specific alterations in complement protein activity of little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus) hibernating in white-nose syndrome affected sites.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is the most devastating condition ever reported for hibernating bats, causing widespread mortality in the northeastern United States. The syndrome is characterized by cutaneous lesions caused by a recently identified psychrophilic and keratinophylic fungus (Geomyces destructans), depleted fat reserves, atypical behavior, and damage to wings; however, the proximate cause of mortality is still uncertain. To assess relative levels of immunocompetence in bats hibernating in WNS-affected sites compared with levels in unaffected bats, we describe blood plasma complement protein activity in hibernating little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus) based on microbicidal competence assays using Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Blood plasma from bats collected during mid-hibernation at WNS-affected sites had higher bactericidal ability against E. coli and S. aureus, but lower fungicidal ability against C. albicans when compared with blood plasma from bats collected at unaffected sites. Within affected sites during mid-hibernation, we observed no difference in microbicidal ability between bats displaying obvious fungal infections compared to those without. Bactericidal ability against E. coli decreased significantly as hibernation progressed in bats collected from an affected site. Bactericidal ability against E. coli and fungicidal ability against C. albicans were positively correlated with body mass index (BMI) during late hibernation. We also compared complement activity against the three microbes within individuals and found that the ability of blood plasma from hibernating M. lucifugus to lyse microbial cells differed as follows: E. coli>S. aureus>C. albicans. Overall, bats affected by WNS experience both relatively elevated and reduced innate immune responses depending on the microbe tested, although the cause of observed immunological changes remains unknown. Additionally, considerable trade-offs may exist between energy conservation and immunological responses. Relationships between immune activity and torpor, including associated energy expenditure, are likely critical components in the development of WNS.