Incidence and Transmission Dynamics of Bordetella pertussis Infection in Rural and Urban Communities, South Africa, 2016‒2018.

We conducted 3 prospective cohort studies (2016-2018), enrolling persons from 2 communities in South Africa. Nasopharyngeal swab specimens were collected twice a week from participants. Factors associated with Bordetella pertussis incidence, episode duration, and household transmission were determined by using Poisson regression, Weibull accelerated time-failure, and logistic regression hierarchical models, respectively. Among 1,684 participants, 118 episodes of infection were detected in 107 participants (incidence 0.21, 95% CI 0.17-0.25 infections/100 person-weeks). Children <5 years of age who had incomplete vaccination were more likely to have pertussis infection. Episode duration was longer for participants who had higher bacterial loads. Transmission was more likely to occur from male index case-patients and persons who had >7 days infection duration. In both communities, there was high incidence of B. pertussis infection and most cases were colonized.

Epidemiology of Pertussis in Individuals of All Ages Hospitalized With Respiratory Illness in South Africa, January 2013-December 2018.

BACKGROUND: Policy recommendations on pertussis vaccination need to be guided by data, which are limited from low- and middle-income countries. We aimed to describe the epidemiology of pertussis in South Africa, a country with high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence and routine pertussis vaccination for 6 decades including the acellular vaccine since 2009. METHODS: Hospitalized patients of all ages were enrolled at 5 sentinel sites as part of a pneumonia surveillance program from January 2013 through December 2018. Nasopharyngeal specimens and induced sputum were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for Bordetella pertussis. In addition, demographic and clinical information were collected. Incidence rates were calculated for 2013-2016, and multivariable logistic regression performed to identify factors associated with pertussis. RESULTS: Over the 6-year period 19 429 individuals were enrolled, of which 239 (1.2%) tested positive for B. pertussis. Detection rate was highest in infants aged <6 months (2.8%, 155/5524). Mean annual incidence was 17 cases per 100 000 population, with the highest incidence in children <1 year of age (228 per 100 000). Age-adjusted incidence was 65.9 per 100 000 in HIV-infected individuals compared to 8.5 per 100 000 in HIV-uninfected individuals (risk ratio 30.4, 95% confidence interval: 23.0-40.2). Ten individuals (4.2%) with pertussis died; of which 7 were infants aged <6 months and 3 were immunocompromised adults. CONCLUSIONS: Pertussis continues to be a significant cause of illness and hospitalization in South Africa, despite routine vaccination. The highest burden of disease and death occurred in infants; however, HIV-infected adults were also identified as an important group at risk of B. pertussis infection.

Challenges and clinical relevance of molecular detection of Bordetella pertussis in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: We assessed the utility of a multi-target, real-time PCR assay for Bordetella pertussis detection and diagnosis in patients with severe respiratory illness (SRI), influenza-like illness (ILI), and asymptomatic controls. METHODS: Real-time PCR detection of IS481, pIS1001, hIS1001 and ptxS1 was performed on nasopharyngeal specimens (SRI, ILI and controls) and induced sputum (SRI) collected from June 2012 to May 2016 through respiratory illness surveillance. Using PCR cycle threshold (Ct) value cut-offs, IS481 positive cases were classified as confirmed (Ct < 35) or possible (Ct 35-39) pertussis disease. RESULTS: Among 12,922 samples, 146 (1.1%) were IS481 positive of which 62% (90/146) were classified as confirmed. The attributable fraction (AF) was 92.2% (95% CI, 65.6 to 98.2%) and 90.5% (95% CI, 57.5 to 97.9%) amongst SRI and ILI PCR-confirmed pertussis cases, respectively. Amongst possible pertussis cases, AF was 36.9% (95% CI, - 142.3 to 83.6%) and 67.5% (95% CI, - 30.6 to 91.9%) in the SRI and ILI groups, respectively. CONCLUSION: All IS481 positive specimens could be considered as B. pertussis infection, and potentially pertussis disease with supportive clinical information.

Epidemiology and Molecular Identification and Characterization of Mycoplasma pneumoniae, South Africa, 2012-2015.

During 2012-2015, we tested respiratory specimens from patients with severe respiratory illness (SRI), patients with influenza-like illness (ILI), and controls in South Africa by real-time PCR for Mycoplasma pneumoniae, followed by culture and molecular characterization of positive samples. M. pneumoniae prevalence was 1.6% among SRI patients, 0.7% among ILI patients, and 0.2% among controls (p<0.001). Age <5 years (adjusted odd ratio 7.1; 95% CI 1.7-28.7) and HIV infection (adjusted odds ratio 23.8; 95% CI 4.1-138.2) among M. pneumonia-positive persons were associated with severe disease. The detection rate attributable to illness was 93.9% (95% CI 74.4%-98.5%) in SRI patients and 80.7% (95% CI 16.7%-95.6%) in ILI patients. The hospitalization rate was 28 cases/100,000 population. We observed the macrolide-susceptible M. pneumoniae genotype in all cases and found P1 types 1, 2, and a type 2 variant with multilocus variable number tandem repeat types 3/6/6/2, 3/5/6/2, and 4/5/7/2.

Molecular Characterization of Corynebacterium diphtheriae Outbreak Isolates, South Africa, March-June 2015.

In 2015, a cluster of respiratory diphtheria cases was reported from KwaZulu-Natal Province in South Africa. By using whole-genome analysis, we characterized 21 Corynebacterium diphtheriae isolates collected from 20 patients and contacts during the outbreak (1 patient was infected with 2 variants of C. diphtheriae). In addition, we included 1 cutaneous isolate, 2 endocarditis isolates, and 2 archived clinical isolates (ca. 1980) for comparison. Two novel lineages were identified, namely, toxigenic sequence type (ST) ST-378 (n = 17) and nontoxigenic ST-395 (n = 3). One archived isolate and the cutaneous isolate were ST-395, suggesting ongoing circulation of this lineage for >30 years. The absence of preexisting molecular sequence data limits drawing conclusions pertaining to the origin of these strains; however, these findings provide baseline genotypic data for future cases and outbreaks. Neither ST has been reported in any other country; this ST appears to be endemic only in South Africa.

Comparing adults with severe SARS-CoV-2 or influenza infection: South Africa, 2016-2021.

Background: Comparisons of the characteristics of individuals hospitalised with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) or seasonal influenza in low-to middle-income countries with high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence are limited. Objectives: Determine the epidemiological differences with those hospitalised with influenza or SARS-CoV-2 infection. Method: We investigated hospitalised individuals ≥18 years of age testing positive for seasonal influenza (2016-2019) or SARS-CoV-2 (2020-2021). We used random effects multivariable logistic regression, controlling for clustering by site, to evaluate differences among adults hospitalised with influenza or SARS-CoV-2 infection. Results: Compared to individuals with influenza, individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection were more likely to be diabetic (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.70, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.11-2.61) or die in hospital (aOR: 2.57, 95% CI: 1.61-4.12). Additionally, those with SARS-CoV-2 infection were less likely to be living with HIV (not immunosuppressed) (aOR: 0.50, 95% CI: 0.34-0.73) or living with HIV (immunosuppressed) (aOR: 0.27, 95% CI: 0.18-0.39) compared to not living with HIV and less likely to be asthmatic (aOR: 0.21, 95% CI: 0.13-0.33) rather than those living with influenza. Conclusion: Individuals hospitalised with SARS-CoV-2 had different characteristics to individuals hospitalised with influenza before the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Risk factors should be considered in health management especially as we move into an era of co-circulation of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza pathogens. Contribution: Identifying groups at high risk of severe disease could help to better monitor, prevent and control SARS-CoV-2 or influenza severe disease.

Estimation of vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2-associated hospitalization using sentinel surveillance in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness (VE) studies leveraging systematic surveillance in sub-Saharan Africa are limited. We assessed the effectiveness of two vaccines (Pfizer BNT162b2 and Johnson & Johnson Ad26.COV2.S) against SARS-CoV-2-associated hospitalization in South African adults aged ≥18 years. METHODS: We conducted a test-negative case-control study using pneumonia surveillance data in South Africa. Inpatients with physician-diagnosed lower respiratory tract infection or suspected COVID-19, testing SARS-CoV-2 positive or negative from June 2021-March 2022, were cases or controls, respectively. Fully vaccinated individuals received one Ad26.COV2.S dose or two BNT162b2 doses ≥14-days before enrollment. VE was estimated using multivariable logistic regression for Delta- and Omicron BA.1/BA.2-predominant periods, stratified by age and HIV status. RESULTS: The study included 925 cases and 1890 controls; 38 (4%) cases and 186 (10%) controls were fully vaccinated with BNT162b2, and 30 (3%) cases and 94 (5%) controls with Ad26.COV2.S. The vaccine effectiveness of BNT162b2 against SARS-CoV-2-associated hospitalization over Delta and Omicron BA.1/BA.2 periods was 91% (95% CI: 52%, 98%) and 33% (-16%, 86%), respectively. The vaccine effectiveness of Ad26.COV2.S against hospitalization over Delta and Omicron BA.1/BA.2 periods was 72% (-36% ,94%), and -19% (-130%, 39%), respectively. The vaccine effectiveness of BNT162b2 against hospitalization over the Delta period was 94% (50%, 99%) and 89% (27%, 98%) among adults aged ≥60 years and HIV-uninfected, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The BNT162b2 vaccine was effective against SARS-CoV-2-associated hospitalization during the Delta period for adults aged ≥18 years, ≥60 years and those HIV-uninfected. VE for Ad26.COV2.S was inconclusive, potentially due to limited sample size or residual confounding. These findings highlight the utility of sentinel surveillance for estimating VE.

Risk Factors for Severe COVID-19 Among Children and Adolescents Enrolled in Acute Respiratory Infection Sentinel Surveillance in South Africa, 2020-2022.

BACKGROUND: Identifying children at risk for severe COVID-19 disease from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) may guide future mitigation interventions. Using sentinel surveillance data, we aimed to identify risk factors for SARS-CoV-2-associated hospitalisation among patients aged ≤ 18 years with respiratory illness. METHODS: From April 2020 to March 2022, patients meeting study case definitions were enrolled at four outpatient influenza-like illness (ILI) and five inpatient severe respiratory infection (SRI) surveillance sites and tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Each ILI clinic shared a catchment area with its corresponding SRI hospital. Potential risk factors for SARS-CoV-2-associated hospitalisation were analysed using multivariable logistic regression by comparing inpatient versus outpatient SARS-CoV-2 cases. RESULTS: Of 4688 participants aged ≤ 18 years, 4556 (97%) with complete PCR and HIV data were included in the analysis. Among patients with ILI and SRI, 92/1145 (8%) and 154/3411 (5%) tested SARS-CoV-2 positive, respectively. Compared to outpatients, hospitalised SARS-CoV-2 cases were associated with age < 6 months ([adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 8.0, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.7-24.0] versus 1-4 years); underlying medical condition other than HIV [aOR 5.8, 95% CI 2.3-14.6]; laboratory-confirmed Omicron BA.1/BA.2 or Delta variant ([aOR 4.9, 95% CI 1.7-14.2] or [aOR 2.8, 95% CI 1.1-7.3] compared to ancestral SARS-CoV-2); and respiratory syncytial virus coinfection [aOR 6.2, 95% CI 1.0-38.5]. CONCLUSION: Aligning with previous research, we identified age < 6 months or having an underlying condition as risk factors for SARS-CoV-2-associated SRI hospitalisation and demonstrated the potential of sentinel surveillance to monitor COVID-19 in children.

Genomic characterization of Bordetella pertussis in South Africa, 2015-2019.

Pertussis remains a public health concern in South Africa, with an increase in reported cases and outbreaks in recent years. Whole genome sequencing was performed on 32 Bordetella pertussis isolates sourced from three different surveillance programmes in South Africa between 2015 and 2019. Genome sequences were characterized using multilocus sequence typing, vaccine antigen genes (ptxP, ptxA, ptxB, prn and fimH) and overall genome structure. All isolates were sequence type 2 and harboured the pertussis toxin promoter allele ptxP3. The dominant genotype was ptxP3-ptxA1-ptxB2-prn2-fimH2 (31/32, 96.9 %), with no pertactin-deficient or other mutations in vaccine antigen genes identified. Amongst 21 isolates yielding closed genome assemblies, eight distinct genome structures were detected, with 61.9 % (13/21) of the isolates exhibiting three predominant structures. Increases in case numbers are probably not due to evolutionary changes in the genome but possibly due to other factors such as the cyclical nature of B. pertussis disease, waning immunity due to the use of acellular vaccines and/or population immunity gaps.

Risk Factors for Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 Among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected and -Uninfected Individuals in South Africa, April 2020-March 2022: Data From Sentinel Surveillance.

Background: Data on risk factors for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-associated hospitalization and mortality in high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence settings are limited. Methods: Using existing syndromic surveillance programs for influenza-like-illness and severe respiratory illness at sentinel sites in South Africa, we identified factors associated with COVID-19 hospitalization and mortality. Results: From April 2020 through March 2022, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 was detected in 24.0% (660 of 2746) of outpatient and 32.5% (2282 of 7025) of inpatient cases. Factors associated with COVID-19-associated hospitalization included the following: older age (25-44 [adjusted odds ratio {aOR}= 1.8, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.1-2.9], 45-64 [aOR = 6.8, 95% CI = 4.2-11.0] and ≥65 years [aOR = 26.6, 95% CI = 14.4-49.1] vs 15-24 years); black race (aOR, 3.3; 95% CI, 2.2-5.0); obesity (aOR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.4-3.9); asthma (aOR, 3.5; 95% CI, 1.4-8.9); diabetes mellitus (aOR, 5.3; 95% CI, 3.1-9.3); HIV with CD4 ≥200/mm3 (aOR, 1.5; 95% CI, 1.1-2.2) and CD4 <200/mm3 (aOR, 10.5; 95% CI, 5.1-21.6) or tuberculosis (aOR, 12.8; 95% CI, 2.8-58.5). Infection with Beta (aOR, 0.5; 95% CI, .3-.7) vs Delta variant and being fully vaccinated (aOR, 0.1; 95% CI, .1-.3) were less associated with COVID-19 hospitalization. In-hospital mortality was increased in older age (45-64 years [aOR, 2.2; 95% CI, 1.6-3.2] and ≥65 years [aOR, 4.0; 95% CI, 2.8-5.8] vs 25-44 years) and male sex (aOR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.0-1.6) and was lower in Omicron-infected (aOR, 0.3; 95% CI, .2-.6) vs Delta-infected individuals. Conclusions: Active syndromic surveillance encompassing clinical, laboratory, and genomic data identified setting-specific risk factors associated with COVID-19 severity that will inform prioritization of COVID-19 vaccine distribution. Elderly people with tuberculosis or people with HIV, especially severely immunosuppressed, should be prioritized for vaccination.