The tyrosine phosphatase PTPN22 discriminates weak self peptides from strong agonist TCR signals.

T cells must be tolerant of self antigens to avoid autoimmunity but responsive to foreign antigens to provide protection against infection. We found that in both naive T cells and effector T cells, the tyrosine phosphatase PTPN22 limited signaling via the T cell antigen receptor (TCR) by weak agonists and self antigens while not impeding responses to strong agonist antigens. T cells lacking PTPN22 showed enhanced formation of conjugates with antigen-presenting cells pulsed with weak peptides, which led to activation of the T cells and their production of inflammatory cytokines. This effect was exacerbated under conditions of lymphopenia, with the formation of potent memory T cells in the absence of PTPN22. Our data address how loss-of-function PTPN22 alleles can lead to the population expansion of effector and/or memory T cells and a predisposition to human autoimmunity.

ß2 Integrins differentially regulate γδ T cell subset thymic development and peripheral maintenance.

The γδ T cells reside predominantly at barrier sites and play essential roles in immune protection against infection and cancer. Despite recent advances in the development of γδ T cell immunotherapy, our understanding of the basic biology of these cells, including how their numbers are regulated in vivo, remains poor. This is particularly true for tissue-resident γδ T cells. We have identified the ß2 family of integrins as regulators of γδ T cells. ß2-integrin-deficient mice displayed a striking increase in numbers of IL-17-producing Vγ6Vδ1+ γδ T cells in the lungs, uterus, and circulation. Thymic development of this population was normal. However, single-cell RNA sequencing revealed the enrichment of genes associated with T cell survival and proliferation specifically in ß2-integrin-deficient IL-17+ cells compared to their wild-type counterparts. Indeed, ß2-integrin-deficient Vγ6+ cells from the lungs showed reduced apoptosis ex vivo, suggesting that increased survival contributes to the accumulation of these cells in ß2-integrin-deficient tissues. Furthermore, our data revealed an unexpected role for ß2 integrins in promoting the thymic development of the IFNγ-producing CD27+ Vγ4+ γδ T cell subset. Together, our data reveal that ß2 integrins are important regulators of γδ T cell homeostasis, inhibiting the survival of IL-17-producing Vγ6Vδ1+ cells and promoting the thymic development of the IFNγ-producing Vγ4+ subset. Our study introduces unprecedented mechanisms of control for γδ T cell subsets.

Dendritic cell integrin expression patterns regulate inflammation in the rheumatoid arthritis joint.

OBJECTIVES: Immune dysregulation contributes to the development of RA. Altered surface expression patterns of integrin adhesion receptors by immune cells is one mechanism by which this may occur. We investigated the role of ß2 integrin subunits CD11a and CD11b in dendritic cell (DC) subsets of RA patients. METHODS: Total ß2 integrin subunit expression and its conformation ('active' vs 'inactive' state) were quantified in DC subsets from peripheral blood (PB) and SF of RA patients as well as PB from healthy controls. Ex vivo stimulation of PB DC subsets and in vitro-generated mature and tolerogenic monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) were utilized to model the clinical findings. Integrin subunit contribution to DC function was tested by analysing clustering and adhesion, and in co-cultures to assess T cell activation. RESULTS: A significant reduction in total and active CD11a expression in DCs in RA SF compared with PB and, conversely, a significant increase in CD11b expression was found. These findings were modelled in vitro using moDCs: tolerogenic moDCs showed higher expression of active CD11a and reduced levels of active CD11b compared with mature moDCs. Finally, blockade of CD11b impaired T cell activation in DC-T cell co-cultures. CONCLUSION: For the first time in RA, we show opposing expression of CD11a and CD11b in DCs in environments of inflammation (CD11alow/CD11bhigh) and steady state/tolerance (CD11ahigh/CD11blow), as well as a T cell stimulatory role for CD11b. These findings highlight DC integrins as potential novel targets for intervention in RA.

Caveolin-1 Influences LFA-1 Redistribution upon TCR Stimulation in CD8 T Cells.

TCR stimulation by peptide-MHC complexes on APCs requires precise reorganization of molecules into the area of cellular contact to form an immunological synapse from where T cell signaling is initiated. Caveolin (Cav)1, a widely expressed transmembrane protein, is involved in the regulation of membrane composition, cellular polarity and trafficking, and the organization of signal transduction pathways. The presence of Cav1 protein in T cells was identified only recently, and its function in this context is not well understood. We show that Cav1-knockout CD8 T cells have a reduction in membrane cholesterol and sphingomyelin, and upon TCR triggering they exhibit altered morphology and polarity, with reduced effector function compared with Cav1 wild-type CD8 T cells. In particular, redistribution of the ß2 integrin LFA-1 to the immunological synapse is compromised in Cav1-knockout T cells, as is the ability of LFA-1 to form high-avidity interactions with ICAM-1. Our results identify a role for Cav1 in membrane organization and ß2 integrin function in primary CD8 T cells.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Metformin Irrespective of Diabetes Status.

RATIONALE: The diabetes mellitus drug metformin is under investigation in cardiovascular disease, but the molecular mechanisms underlying possible benefits are poorly understood. OBJECTIVE: Here, we have studied anti-inflammatory effects of the drug and their relationship to antihyperglycemic properties. METHODS AND RESULTS: In primary hepatocytes from healthy animals, metformin and the IKKß (inhibitor of kappa B kinase) inhibitor BI605906 both inhibited tumor necrosis factor-α-dependent IκB degradation and expression of proinflammatory mediators interleukin-6, interleukin-1ß, and CXCL1/2 (C-X-C motif ligand 1/2). Metformin suppressed IKKα/ß activation, an effect that could be separated from some metabolic actions, in that BI605906 did not mimic effects of metformin on lipogenic gene expression, glucose production, and AMP-activated protein kinase activation. Equally AMP-activated protein kinase was not required either for mitochondrial suppression of IκB degradation. Consistent with discrete anti-inflammatory actions, in macrophages, metformin specifically blunted secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, without inhibiting M1/M2 differentiation or activation. In a large treatment naive diabetes mellitus population cohort, we observed differences in the systemic inflammation marker, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio, after incident treatment with either metformin or sulfonylurea monotherapy. Compared with sulfonylurea exposure, metformin reduced the mean log-transformed neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio after 8 to 16 months by 0.09 U (95% confidence interval, 0.02-0.17; P=0.013) and increased the likelihood that neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio would be lower than baseline after 8 to 16 months (odds ratio, 1.83; 95% confidence interval, 1.22-2.75; P=0.00364). Following up these findings in a double-blind placebo controlled trial in nondiabetic heart failure (trial registration: NCT00473876), metformin suppressed plasma cytokines including the aging-associated cytokine CCL11 (C-C motif chemokine ligand 11). CONCLUSION: We conclude that anti-inflammatory properties of metformin are exerted irrespective of diabetes mellitus status. This may accelerate investigation of drug utility in nondiabetic cardiovascular disease groups. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: Name of the trial registry: TAYSIDE trial (Metformin in Insulin Resistant Left Ventricular [LV] Dysfunction). URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT00473876.

Optimal T Cell Activation and B Cell Antibody Responses In Vivo Require the Interaction between Leukocyte Function-Associated Antigen-1 and Kindlin-3.

Kindlin-3 is an important integrin regulator that is mutated in the rare genetic disorder, leukocyte adhesion deficiency type III, a disorder characterized by defective neutrophil trafficking and platelet function, leading to recurrent bacterial infections and bleeding. Kindlin-3 is also known to regulate T cell adhesion in vitro and trafficking in vivo, but whether the integrin/kindlin interaction regulates T or B cell activation in vivo is unclear. In this study, we used TTT/AAA ß2-integrin knock-in (KI) mice and TCR-transgenic (OT-II) KI mice, in which the integrin/kindlin connection is disrupted, to investigate the role of the integrin/kindlin interaction in T cell activation. We show that basal T cell activation status in these animals in vivo is normal, but they display reduced T cell activation by wild-type Ag-loaded dendritic cells in vitro. In addition, T cell activation in vivo is reduced. We also show that basal Ab levels are normal in TTT/AAA ß2-integrin KI mice, but B cell numbers in lymph nodes and IgG and IgM production after immunization are reduced. In conclusion, we show that the integrin/kindlin interaction is required for trafficking of immune cells, as well as for T cell activation and B cell Ab responses in vivo. These results imply that the immunodeficiency found in leukocyte adhesion deficiency type III patients, in addition to being caused by defects in neutrophil function, may be due, in part, to defects in lymphocyte trafficking and activation.

A crucial role for ß2 integrins in podosome formation, dynamics and Toll-like-receptor-signaled disassembly in dendritic cells.

The dynamic properties of podosomes, their ability to degrade the underlying matrix and their modulation by Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling in dendritic cells (DCs) suggests they have an important role in migration. Integrins are thought to participate in formation and dynamics of podosomes but the multiplicity of integrins in podosomes has made this difficult to assess. We report that murine DCs that lack ß2 integrins fail to form podosomes. Re-expression of ß2 integrins restored podosomes but not when the membrane proximal or distal NPxF motifs, or when an intervening triplet of threonine residues were mutated. We show that ß2 integrins are remarkably long-lived in podosome clusters and form a persistent framework that hosts multiple actin-core-formation events at the same or adjacent sites. When ß2 integrin amino acid residues 745 or 756 were mutated from Ser to Ala, podosomes became resistant to dissolution mediated through TLR signaling. TLR signaling did not detectably modulate phosphorylation at these sites but mutation of either residue to phospho-mimetic Asp increased ß2 integrin turnover in podosomes, indicating that phosphorylation at one or both sites establishes permissive conditions for TLR-signaled podosome disassembly.

The ß2 integrin-kindlin-3 interaction is essential for T-cell homing but dispensable for T-cell activation in vivo.

Kindlin-3 is mutated in the rare genetic disorder, leukocyte adhesion deficiency type III, which is characterized by deficient integrin-mediated adhesion of leukocytes and platelets. However, the specific roles of kindlin-3-ß2-integrin interactions in T-cell adhesion and homing and immune responses in vivo remain unclear. Here, we show that the TTT motif in ß2 integrins controls kindlin-3 binding. Mutation of the kindlin-3 binding site in ß2 integrins caused a loss of firm adhesion of T cells under both static and shear flow conditions and a reduction of T-cell homing to lymph nodes in vivo. However, atomic force microscopy studies of integrin-ligand bonds revealed that initial ligand binding could still occur, and 2-dimensional T-cell migration was reduced but not abolished by the TTT/AAA mutation in the ß2 integrin. Importantly, dendritic cell-mediated T-cell activation in vivo was normal in TTT/AAA ß2 integrin knock-in mice. Our results reveal a selective role of the kindlin-3-integrin association for lymphocyte functions in vivo; the integrin-kindlin-3 interaction is particularly important in adhesion strengthening under shear flow, and for T-cell homing to lymph nodes, but dispensable for T cell activation which occurs in a shear-free environment.

The spontaneously adhesive leukocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) integrin in effector T cells mediates rapid actin- and calmodulin-dependent adhesion strengthening to ligand under shear flow.

Integrins in effector T cells are highly expressed and important for trafficking of these cells and for their effector functions. However, how integrins are regulated in effector T cells remains poorly characterized. Here, we have investigated effector T cell leukocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) regulation in primary murine effector T cells. These cells have high LFA-1 integrin expression and display high spontaneous binding to intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) ligand under static conditions. In addition, these cells are able to migrate spontaneously on ICAM-1. Atomic force microscopy measurements showed that the force required for unbinding of integrin-ligand interactions increases over time (0.5-20-s contact time). The maximum unbinding force for this interaction was ∼140 piconewtons at 0.5-s contact time, increasing to 580 piconewtons at 20-s contact time. Also, the total work required to disrupt the interaction increased over the 20-s contact time, indicating LFA-1-mediated adhesion strengthening in primary effector T cells over a very quick time frame. Effector T cells adhered spontaneously to ICAM-1 under conditions of shear flow, in the absence of chemokine stimulation, and this binding was independent of protein kinase B/Akt and protein kinase C kinase activity, but dependent on calcium/calmodulin signaling and an intact actin cytoskeleton. These results indicate that effector T cell integrins are highly expressed and spontaneously adhesive in the absence of inside-out integrin signaling but that LFA-1-mediated firm adhesion under conditions of shear flow requires downstream integrin signaling, which is dependent on calcium/calmodulin and the actin cytoskeleton.

Protein kinase D isoforms are dispensable for integrin-mediated lymphocyte adhesion and homing to lymphoid tissues.

Leukocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and very late antigen-4 (VLA-4) integrins are essential for lymphocyte adhesion, trafficking and effector functions. Protein kinase D (PKD) has previously been implicated in lymphocyte integrin regulation through regulation of Rap1 activity. However, the true role of PKD in integrin regulation in primary lymphocytes has not previously been investigated. The major PKD isoform in lymphocytes is PKD2. Here we employed PKD2-deficient mice, a specific PKD kinase inhibitor, as well as PKD-null DT40 B cells to investigate the role of PKD in integrin regulation in lymphocytes. We report that PKD2-deficient lymphocytes bound normally to integrin ligands in static and shear flow adhesion assays. They also homed normally to lymphoid organs after adoptive transfer into wild-type mice. DT40 B cells devoid of any PKD isoforms and primary lymphocytes pretreated with a specific PKD inhibitor bound normally to integrin ligands, indicating that multiple PKD isoforms do not redundantly regulate lymphocyte integrins. In addition, PKD2-deficient lymphocytes, as well as DT40 cells devoid of any PKD isoforms, could activate Rap1 in response to B-cell receptor ligation or phorbol ester treatment. Together, these results show that the PKD family does not play a critical role in lymphocyte integrin-mediated cell adhesion or lymphocyte trafficking in vivo.

TLR-mediated loss of CD62L focuses B cell traffic to the spleen during Salmonella typhimurium infection.

B cells recognize Ags on microorganisms both with their BCRs and TLRs. This innate recognition has the potential to alter the behavior of whole populations of B cells. We show in this study that in culture and in mice, MyD88-dependent activation of B cells via TLR2 or TLR9 causes the rapid loss of expression of CD62L by metalloproteinase-dependent shedding. Adoptive transfer of in vitro CpG-activated B cells showed them to be excluded from lymph nodes and Peyer's patches, but not the spleen. In vivo, both injection of CpG and systemic infection with Salmonella typhimurium caused the shedding of CD62L and the consequent focusing of B cell migration to the spleen and away from lymph nodes. We propose that wholesale TLR-mediated changes to B cell migration influence the development of immunity to pathogens carrying appropriate ligands.

Examining the Effect of Kindlin-3 Binding Site Mutation on LFA-1-ICAM-1 Bonds by Force Measuring Optical Tweezers.

Integrins in effector T cells are crucial for cell adhesion and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD) type III, a genetic condition that can cause death in early childhood, highlights the importance of integrin/kindlin interactions for immune system function. A TTT/AAA mutation in the cytoplasmic domain of the ß2 integrin significantly reduces kindlin-3 binding to the ß2 tail, abolishes leukocyte adhesion to intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and decreases T cell trafficking in vivo. However, how kindlin-3 affects integrin function in T cells remains incompletely understood. We present an examination of LFA-1/ICAM-1 bonds in both wild-type effector T cells and those with a kindlin-3 binding site mutation. Adhesion assays show that effector T cells carrying the kindlin-3 binding site mutation display significantly reduced adhesion to the integrin ligand ICAM-1. Using optical trapping, combined with back focal plane interferometry, we measured a bond rupture force of 17.85 ±0.63 pN at a force loading rate of 30.21 ± 4.35 pN/s, for single integrins expressed on wild-type cells. Interestingly, a significant drop in rupture force of bonds was found for TTT/AAA-mutant cells, with a measured rupture force of 10.08 ± 0.88pN at the same pulling rate. Therefore, kindlin-3 binding to the cytoplasmic tail of the ß2-tail directly affects catch bond formation and bond strength of integrin-ligand bonds. As a consequence of this reduced binding, CD8+ T cell activation in vitro is also significantly reduced.

ß2 Integrins As Regulators of Dendritic Cell, Monocyte, and Macrophage Function.

Emerging evidence suggests that the ß2 integrin family of adhesion molecules have an important role in suppressing immune activation and inflammation. ß2 integrins are important adhesion and signaling molecules that are exclusively expressed on leukocytes. The four ß2 integrins (CD11a, CD11b, CD11c, and CD11d paired with the ß2 chain CD18) play important roles in regulating three key aspects of immune cell function: recruitment to sites of inflammation; cell-cell contact formation; and downstream effects on cellular signaling. Through these three processes, ß2 integrins both contribute to and regulate immune responses. This review explores the pro- and anti-inflammatory effects of ß2 integrins in monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells and how they influence the outcome of immune responses. We furthermore discuss how imbalances in ß2 integrin function can have far-reaching effects on mounting appropriate immune responses, potentially influencing the development and progression of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Therapeutic targeting of ß2 integrins, therefore, holds enormous potential in exploring treatment options for a variety of inflammatory conditions.

Heterogeneity of Phenotype and Function Reflects the Multistage Development of T Follicular Helper Cells.

T follicular helper cells (Tfh) provide crucial signals for germinal center (GC) formation, but Tfh populations are heterogeneous. While PD1hi Tfh are important in the GC response, the function of the PD1lo Tfh-like subset is unknown. We show that these cells, like the PD1hi GC-Tfh, depend upon B cells; however, their entry to follicles is independent of CXCR5 or cognate interactions with B cells. The differentiation into PD1hi Tfh is dependent on MHC class II interactions with B cells and requires CXCR5. Our data suggest a Tfh differentiation pathway that is initially B cell-independent, then dependent on non-cognate B cell interactions, and finally following cognate interaction with B cells and CXCR5-ligands allows the formation of GC-Tfh. The PD1lo Tfh-like cells make early cytokine responses and may represent precursors of CD4 memory cells.

MicroRNA-34a dependent regulation of AXL controls the activation of dendritic cells in inflammatory arthritis.

Current treatments for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) do not reverse underlying aberrant immune function. A genetic predisposition to RA, such as HLA-DR4 positivity, indicates that dendritic cells (DC) are of crucial importance to pathogenesis by activating auto-reactive lymphocytes. Here we show that microRNA-34a provides homoeostatic control of CD1c+ DC activation via regulation of tyrosine kinase receptor AXL, an important inhibitory DC auto-regulator. This pathway is aberrant in CD1c+ DCs from patients with RA, with upregulation of miR-34a and lower levels of AXL compared to DC from healthy donors. Production of pro-inflammatory cytokines is reduced by ex vivo gene-silencing of miR-34a. miR-34a-deficient mice are resistant to collagen-induced arthritis and interaction of DCs and T cells from these mice are reduced and do not support the development of Th17 cells in vivo. Our findings therefore show that miR-34a is an epigenetic regulator of DC function that may contribute to RA.

Superresolution imaging of the cytoplasmic phosphatase PTPN22 links integrin-mediated T cell adhesion with autoimmunity.

Integrins are heterodimeric transmembrane proteins that play a fundamental role in the migration of leukocytes to sites of infection or injury. We found that protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor type 22 (PTPN22) inhibits signaling by the integrin lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) in effector T cells. PTPN22 colocalized with its substrates at the leading edge of cells migrating on surfaces coated with the LFA-1 ligand intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). Knockout or knockdown of PTPN22 or expression of the autoimmune disease-associated PTPN22-R620W variant resulted in the enhanced phosphorylation of signaling molecules downstream of integrins. Superresolution imaging revealed that PTPN22-R620 (wild-type PTPN22) was present as large clusters in unstimulated T cells and that these disaggregated upon stimulation of LFA-1, enabling increased association of PTPN22 with its binding partners at the leading edge. The failure of PTPN22-R620W molecules to be retained at the leading edge led to increased LFA-1 clustering and integrin-mediated cell adhesion. Our data define a previously uncharacterized mechanism for fine-tuning integrin signaling in T cells, as well as a paradigm of autoimmunity in humans in which disease susceptibility is underpinned by inherited phosphatase mutations that perturb integrin function.

Functional Beta2-Integrins Restrict Skin Inflammation In Vivo.

Beta2-integrins and the important integrin regulator kindlin-3 are essential for leukocyte trafficking, but the role of beta2-integrins in regulating inflammation is still incompletely understood. Here, we have investigated skin inflammation in a mouse model where the kindlin-3 binding site in the beta2-integrin has been mutated (TTT/AAA-beta2-integrin knock-in), leading to expressed but dysfunctional integrins. We show that, surprisingly, neutrophil trafficking into the inflamed skin in a contact hypersensitivity model is normal in these mice, although trafficking of T cells and eosinophils into the skin is reduced. Instead, expression of dysfunctional integrins leads to increased mast cell and dendritic cell numbers in the skin, increased inflammatory cytokine production in the inflamed skin in vivo, and in mast cells in vitro. Furthermore, expression of dysfunctional integrins leads to increased dendritic cell activation and migration to lymph nodes and increased Th1 responses in vivo. Therefore, the kindlin-3/integrin interaction is important for trafficking of T cells and eosinophils but not absolutely required for neutrophil trafficking into the inflamed skin. Functional beta2-integrins also have a major role in restricting the immune response in the inflamed skin and lymph nodes in vivo, likely through effects on mast cell and dendritic cell numbers and activation.

Mice Lacking beta2-Integrin Function Remain Glucose Tolerant in Spite of Insulin Resistance, Neutrophil Infiltration and Inflammation.

Beta2-integrins are important in leukocyte trafficking and function, and are regulated through the binding of cytoplasmic proteins, such as kindlin-3, to their intracellular domain. Here, we investigate the involvement of beta2-integrins in the regulation of metabolic disease using mice where the kindlin-3 binding site in the beta2-integrin cytoplasmic tail has been mutated (TTT/AAA-beta2-integrin knock-in (KI) mice), leading to expressed but dysfunctional beta2-integrins and significant neutrophilia in vivo. Beta2-integrin KI mice fed on a high fat diet showed normal weight gain, and normal accumulation of macrophages and lymphocytes in white adipose tissue (WAT) and liver, but increased neutrophil numbers especially in WAT. In addition, beta2-integrin KI mice fed on a high fat diet showed significantly increased peripheral insulin resistance in response to high-fat feeding. However, this was associated with improved glucose disposal following glucose load. Interestingly, beta2-integrin KI neutrophils produced more elastase in vitro, in response to stimulation. Beta2-integrin KI mice displayed variability of tissue inflammatory status, with liver and WAT exhibiting little or no difference in inflammation compared to high fat fed controls, whereas skeletal muscle demonstrated a raised inflammatory profile in association with higher elastase levels and diminished signalling through the IRS1-PKB pathway. In conclusion, although expression of dysfunctional beta2-integrins increased neutrophil production and infiltration into tissue, skeletal muscle was the most affected tissue exhibiting evidence of higher neutrophil activity and insulin resistance. Thus, beta2-integrins modulate glucose homeostasis during high fat feeding predominantly through actions on skeletal muscle to affect metabolic phenotype in vivo.

A dominant role for the methyl-CpG-binding protein Mbd2 in controlling Th2 induction by dendritic cells.

Dendritic cells (DCs) direct CD4(+) T-cell differentiation into diverse helper (Th) subsets that are required for protection against varied infections. However, the mechanisms used by DCs to promote Th2 responses, which are important both for immunity to helminth infection and in allergic disease, are currently poorly understood. We demonstrate a key role for the protein methyl-CpG-binding domain-2 (Mbd2), which links DNA methylation to repressive chromatin structure, in regulating expression of a range of genes that are associated with optimal DC activation and function. In the absence of Mbd2, DCs display reduced phenotypic activation and a markedly impaired capacity to initiate Th2 immunity against helminths or allergens. These data identify an epigenetic mechanism that is central to the activation of CD4(+) T-cell responses by DCs, particularly in Th2 settings, and reveal methyl-CpG-binding proteins and the genes under their control as possible therapeutic targets for type-2 inflammation.