Mercury isotopic evidence for the importance of particles as a source of mercury to marine organisms.

The origin of methylmercury in pelagic fish remains unclear, with many unanswered questions regarding the production and degradation of this neurotoxin in the water column. We used mercury (Hg) stable isotope ratios of marine particles and biota to elucidate the cycling of methylmercury prior to incorporation into the marine food web. The Hg isotopic composition of particles, zooplankton, and fish reveals preferential methylation of Hg within small (< 53 µm) marine particles in the upper 400 m of the North Pacific Ocean. Mass-dependent Hg isotope ratios (δ202Hg) recorded in small particles overlap with previously estimated δ202Hg values for methylmercury sources to Pacific and Atlantic Ocean food webs. Particulate compound specific isotope analysis of amino acids (CSIA-AA) yield δ15N values that indicate more-significant microbial decomposition in small particles compared to larger particles. CSIA-AA and Hg isotope data also suggest that large particles (> 53 µm) collected in the equatorial ocean are distinct from small particles and resemble fecal pellets. Additional evidence for Hg methylation within small particles is provided by a statistical mixing model of even mass-independent (Δ200Hg and Δ204Hg) isotope values, which demonstrates that Hg within near-surface marine organisms (0-150 m) originates from a combination of rainfall and marine particles. In contrast, in meso- and upper bathypelagic organisms (200-1,400 m), the majority of Hg originates from marine particles with little input from wet deposition. The occurrence of methylation within marine particles is supported further by a correlation between Δ200Hg and Δ199Hg values, demonstrating greater overlap in the Hg isotopic composition of marine organisms with marine particles than with total gaseous Hg or wet deposition.

Mercury isotopes identify near-surface marine mercury in deep-sea trench biota.

Mercury isotopic compositions of amphipods and snailfish from deep-sea trenches reveal information on the sources and transformations of mercury in the deep oceans. Evidence for methyl-mercury subjected to photochemical degradation in the photic zone is provided by odd-mass independent isotope values (Δ199Hg) in amphipods from the Kermadec Trench, which average 1.57‰ (±0.14, n = 12, SD), and amphipods from the Mariana Trench, which average 1.49‰ (±0.28, n = 13). These values are close to the average value of 1.48‰ (±0.34, n = 10) for methyl-mercury in fish that feed at ∼500-m depth in the central Pacific Ocean. Evidence for variable contributions of mercury from rainfall is provided by even-mass independent isotope values (Δ200Hg) in amphipods that average 0.03‰ (±0.02, n = 12) for the Kermadec and 0.07‰ (±0.01, n = 13) for the Mariana Trench compared to the rainfall average of 0.13 (±0.05, n = 8) in the central Pacific. Mass-dependent isotope values (δ202Hg) are elevated in amphipods from the Kermadec Trench (0.91 ±0.22‰, n = 12) compared to the Mariana Trench (0.26 ±0.23‰, n = 13), suggesting a higher level of microbial demethylation of the methyl-mercury pool before incorporation into the base of the foodweb. Our study suggests that mercury in the marine foodweb at ∼500 m, which is predominantly anthropogenic, is transported to deep-sea trenches primarily in carrion, and then incorporated into hadal (6,000-11,000-m) food webs. Anthropogenic Hg added to the surface ocean is, therefore, expected to be rapidly transported to the deepest reaches of the oceans.

Theoretical Evaluation of Metal-Ligand Bonding in Neptunium Compounds in Relation to 237Np Mössbauer Spectroscopy.

The 237Np Mössbauer isomer shift and quadrupole splitting (QS) are powerful probes for the metal-ligand bonding of neptunium, a 5f-element of vital importance in the nuclear fuel cycle. A large set of Np compounds with different oxidation states (III) to (VII) is studied to investigate, by first-principles calculations, isomer shifts and the QS trends in relation to the Np oxidation state. Natural Bond Orbital analysis reveals that in addition to donation bonding to the 5f shell, participation of the 6d and 7s neptunium shells in covalent (donation) bonding substantially impacts the isomer shifts. The isomer shift cannot be interpreted solely by the 5f shell electron count. The isomer shift for Np(II) compounds is estimated to be in the range of 31-34 mm/s, less positive than for Np(III) compounds. For the QS, density functional calculations fail to reproduce the quadrupole splitting for some Np(VI) ionic solids. A multiconfigurational wave function approach reproduces the observed QS trends. The calculations give a semiquantitative interpretation of the trends for Np oxidation states (V) to (VII). The contrasting QS for standard and "reverse" neptunyl(VI), at the opposite extremes of the observed QS scale, arises predominantly from the different crystal environments.

Internal Dynamics and Metabolism of Mercury in Biota: A Review of Insights from Mercury Stable Isotopes.

Monitoring mercury (Hg) levels in biota is considered an important objective for the effectiveness evaluation of the Minamata Convention. While many studies have characterized Hg levels in organisms at multiple spatiotemporal scales, concentration analyses alone often cannot provide sufficient information on the Hg exposure sources and internal processes occurring within biota. Here, we review the decadal scientific progress of using Hg isotopes to understand internal processes that modify the speciation, transport, and fate of Hg within biota. Mercury stable isotopes have emerged as a powerful tool for assessing Hg sources and biogeochemical processes in natural environments. A better understanding of the tissue location and internal mechanisms leading to Hg isotope change is key to assessing its use for biomonitoring. We synthesize the current understanding and uncertainties of internal processes leading to Hg isotope fractionation in a variety of biota, in a sequence of better to less studied organisms (i.e., birds, marine mammals, humans, fish, plankton, and invertebrates). This review discusses the opportunities and challenges of using certain forms of biota for Hg source monitoring and the need to further elucidate the physiological mechanisms that control the accumulation, distribution, and toxicity of Hg in biota by coupling new techniques with Hg stable isotopes.

Ecological Traits of Fish for Mercury Biomonitoring: Insights from Compound-Specific Nitrogen and Stable Mercury Isotopes.

We coupled compound-specific isotopic analyses of nitrogen (N) in amino acids (δ15NGlu, δ15NPhe) and mercury stable isotopes (δ202Hg, Δ199Hg) to quantify ecological traits governing the concentration, variability, and source of Hg in largemouth bass (LB) and pike gudgeon (PG) across four rivers, South Korea. PG displayed uniform Hg concentration (56-137 ng/g), trophic position (TPcorrected; 2.6-3.0, n = 9), and N isotopes in the source amino acid (δ15NPhe; 7-13‰), consistent with their specialist feeding on benthic insects. LB showed wide ranges in Hg concentration (45-693 ng/g), TPcorrected (2.8-3.8, n = 14), and δ15NPhe (1.3-16‰), reflecting their opportunistic feeding behavior. Hg sources assessed using Hg isotopes reveal low and uniform Δ199Hg in PG (0.20-0.49‰), similar to Δ199Hg reported in sediments. LB displayed site-specific δ202Hg (-0.61 to -0.04‰) and Δ199Hg (0.53-1.09‰). At the Yeongsan River, LB displayed elevated Δ199Hg and low δ15NPhe, consistent with Hg and N sourced from the atmosphere. LB at the Geum River displayed low Δ199Hg and high δ15NPhe, both similar to the isotope values of anthropogenic sources. Our results suggest that a specialist fish (PG) with consistent ecological traits and Hg concentration is an effective bioindicator species for Hg. When accounting for Hg sources, however, LB better captures site-specific Hg sources.

Mercury Magnetic Isotope Effect: A Plausible Photochemical Mechanism.

Large mass-independent fractionation signatures in Hg have been observed in the laboratory and the environment, prompting deep questions about the chemical reasons behind these signatures. Since the relative lack of mechanistic information about Hg chemistry in the environment has precluded explanations of these isotope effects, the present study uses high-level electronic structure methods to evaluate the possible photochemical mechanisms of mass-independent isotope effects (MIEs) in HgX2 and CH3HgX (X = Cl, Br, I, and SCH3). The results show that spin-orbit coupling wipes out the potential of MIEs for Hg bound to Br or I, but that complexes involving lighter elements, HgX2 and CH3HgX (X = Cl and SCH3), have relatively small spin-orbit couplings upon photolysis. This unexpected finding shows that magnetic isotope fractionation due to hyperfine coupling is possible, depending on the identity of the Hg complex. By examination of the photolysis potential energy profiles, this study shows that HgX2 complexes can have a positive or a negative MIE (depending on reaction conditions), while CH3HgX complexes exclusively result in a positive MIE. These findings agree with MIE recorded in natural samples, demonstrating a plausible mechanism for the surprising mass-independent fractionation of Hg in the environment.

Mercury Isotope Fractionation during the Photochemical Reduction of Hg(II) Coordinated with Organic Ligands.

The photochemical reduction of Hg(II) is an important pathway in the environmental Hg cycle because it competes with Hg methylation and potentially limits the formation of bioaccumulative methylmercury. Hg stable isotope systematics have proven to be an effective tool for investigating the transport, transformation, and bioaccumulation of Hg. The dominant cause of mass independent isotope fractionation (MIF) of Hg in nature is the photochemical reduction of various species of Hg(II). However, it is difficult to fully interpret Hg stable isotope signatures due to the lack of mechanistic information about which Hg compounds are susceptible to MIF and why. This study investigates Hg isotope fractionation during the photochemical reduction of Hg(II) complexed to organic ligands, which are representative of the available binding sites in natural dissolved organic matter. The photochemical reduction of Hg(II) in the presence of cysteine resulted in both negative and positive MIF in residual Hg(II), where the sign depended on pH and dissolved oxygen level. In the presence of serine, either nuclear volume or magnetic isotope effects were observed depending on the wavelength of light and the extent of Hg(II) complexation by serine. In the presence of ethylenediamine, MIF was negative. Our Hg stable isotope results suggest that MDF and MIF are induced at different steps in the overall photochemical reduction reaction and that MIF does not depend on the rate-determining step but instead depends on photophysical aspects of the reaction such as intersystem crossing and hyperfine coupling. The behavior of Hg isotopes reported here will allow for a better understanding of the underlying reaction mechanisms controlling the Hg isotope signatures recorded in natural samples.

Near surface oxidation of elemental mercury leads to mercury exposure in the Arctic Ocean biota.

Atmospheric mercury (Hg(0), Hg(II)) and riverine exported Hg (Hg(II)) are proposed as important Hg sources to the Arctic Ocean. As plankton cannot passively uptake Hg(0), gaseous Hg(0) has to be oxidized to be bioavailable. Here, we measured Hg isotope ratios in zooplankton, Arctic cod, total gaseous Hg, sediment, seawater, and snowpack from the Bering Strait, the Chukchi Sea, and the Beaufort Sea. The Δ200Hg, used to differentiate between Hg(0) and Hg(II), shows, on average, 70% of Hg(0) in all biota and differs with seawater Δ200Hg (Hg(II)). Since Δ200Hg anomalies occur via tropospheric Hg(0) oxidation, we propose that near-surface Hg(0) oxidation via terrestrial vegetation, coastally evaded halogens, and sea salt aerosols, which preserve Δ200Hg of Hg(0) upon oxidation, supply bioavailable Hg(II) pools in seawater. Our study highlights sources and pathways in which Hg(0) poses potential ecological risks to the Arctic Ocean biota.

Actinide inverse trans influence versus cooperative pushing from below and multi-center bonding.

Actinide-ligand bonds with high multiplicities remain poorly understood. Decades ago, an effect known as 6p pushing from below (PFB) was proposed to enhance actinide covalency. A related effect-also poorly understood-is inverse trans influence (ITI). The present computational study of actinide-ligand covalent interactions with high bond multiplicities quantifies the energetic contributions from PFB and identifies a hitherto overlooked fourth bonding interaction for 2nd-row ligands in the studied organometallic systems. The latter are best described by a terminal O/N ligand exhibiting quadruple bonding interactions with the actinide. The 4th interaction may be characterized as a multi-center or charge-shift bond involving the trans ligand. It is shown in this work that the 4th bonding interaction is a manifestation of ITI, assisted by PFB, and provides a long-sought missing piece in the understanding of actinide chemistry.

237Np Mössbauer Isomer Shifts: A Lesson About the Balance of Static and Dynamic Electron Correlation in Heavy Element Complexes.

A large set of neptunium compounds with different oxidation states (III to VII) was assembled to study the Mössbauer isomer shift by wave function calculations and better understand covalency in f-elements complexes. The contact density approach was used to calculate the isomer shift using complete active space self-consistent field (CASSCF) multiconfiguration wave functions, as well as matrix product states [from Density Matrix Renormalization Group (DMRG) algorithms] for large active spaces. Dynamic correlation effects for the isomer shifts were treated via CASPT2 energy derivatives with respect to the nuclear radius. The CASSCF calculations appear to produce different orbital overlocalization errors for low and high Np oxidation states. For compounds with low Np oxidation numbers, the errors can be attributed to the overlocalization of the 5f orbitals. For the compounds with high Np oxidation numbers, the main errors arise from an overlocalization of ligand orbitals and concomitant to weak donation bonding. Attempts to mitigate the overlocalization errors with large active spaces using DMRG were only partially successful, showing that explicit treatment of dynamic correlation is necessary for accurate predictions of Mössbauer isomer shifts. The CASPT2 calculations perform very satisfactorily. For a subset of Np compounds, both static and dynamic correlation effects were substantial. A rational active space selection based on orbital entanglement diagrams proved beneficial for determining the optimal reference wave function.

Theoretical Prediction and Interpretation of 237Np Mössbauer Isomer Shifts.

Different theoretical approaches for the calculation of 237Np Mössbauer isomer shifts are investigated. The traditional contact density route is compared to a previously proposed alternative approach that uses energy derivatives with respect to the nuclear radius. Both approaches yield similar results as long as suitable basis sets augmented with large exponents and relativistic methods are used. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations do not show a strong dependency of the 237Np isomer shift on the chosen functional. Wavefunction calculations show that dynamic electron correlation can be important when covalent bonding influences the isomer shift. Effects from spin-orbit coupling are small. The isomer shifts of ionic solids and Np(III) organometallic complexes are largely governed by the oxidation state of Np. Isomer shifts of organometallic Np(IV) complexes are strongly affected by donation bonding. Detailed analysis of the wavefunction results with different active spaces demonstrates that correlation among the outer core Np and occupied ligand frontier orbitals contributes significantly to isomer shifts of Np(IV) compounds.

Isotope investigation of mercury sources in a creek impacted by multiple anthropogenic activities.

To investigate mercury (Hg) sources responsible for contamination at Gumu Creek in South Korea, Hg concentration (THg) and Hg isotope ratios were measured in the soil and sediment of Gumu Creek and the samples from a hazardous waste landfill (HWL). The THg ranged between 0.29-327 mg kg-1 and 9.5-414 mg kg-1 in the soil and sediment, respectively, reflecting heterogeneous distribution and elevated levels across the entire Gumu Creek. Without the soil with the lowest THg (0.30 ± 0.01 mg kg-1, n = 3), the δ202Hg (-0.83 to -0.18‰) and Δ199Hg (-0.24 to 0.01‰) of the sediment and soil of Gumu Creek were within the ranges of the HWL samples (δ202Hg; -1.29 to -0.38‰, Δ199Hg; -0.31 to 0.01‰). The comparison with the literature reporting sediment Hg isotope ratios impacted by various anthropogenic Hg sources revealed a presence of diverse Hg sources at Gumu Creek, including commercial liquid Hg, phenyl-Hg, and fly ash, consistent with the types of waste deposited within the HWL. Using commercial liquid Hg, fly ash, and the soil with the lowest THg as end-members, the ternary mixing model yielded 25-88% and 12-57% contributions from commercial liquid Hg and fly ash to the Gumu Creek sediment, respectively. The results of our study suggest that Hg isotope ratios are an effective tool for screening potential Hg sources at sites where the distribution of Hg is heterogeneous and multiple anthropogenic activities exist.