Characterisation of SARS-CoV-2 clades based on signature SNPs unveils continuous evolution.

Since the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 in Wuhan, China more than a year ago, it has spread across the world in a very short span of time. Although, different forms of vaccines are being rolled out for vaccination programs around the globe, the mutation of the virus is still a cause of concern among the research communities. Hence, it is important to study the constantly evolving virus and its strains in order to provide a much more stable form of cure. This fact motivated us to conduct this research where we have initially carried out multiple sequence alignment of 15359 and 3033 global dataset without Indian and the dataset of exclusive Indian SARS-CoV-2 genomes respectively, using MAFFT. Subsequently, phylogenetic analyses are performed using Nextstrain to identify virus clades. Consequently, the virus strains are found to be distributed among 5 major clades or clusters viz. 19A, 19B, 20A, 20B and 20C. Thereafter, mutation points as SNPs are identified in each clade. Henceforth, from each clade top 10 signature SNPs are identified based on their frequency i.e. number of occurrences in the virus genome. As a result, 50 such signature SNPs are individually identified for global dataset without Indian and dataset of exclusive Indian SARS-CoV-2 genomes respectively. Out of each 50 signature SNPs, 39 and 41 unique SNPs are identified among which 25 non-synonymous signature SNPs (out of 39) resulted in 30 amino acid changes in protein while 27 changes in amino acid are identified from 22 non-synonymous signature SNPs (out of 41). These 30 and 27 amino acid changes for the non-synonymous signature SNPs are visualised in their respective protein structure as well. Finally, in order to judge the characteristics of the identified clades, the non-synonymous signature SNPs are considered to evaluate the changes in proteins as biological functions with the sequences using PROVEAN and PolyPhen-2 while I-Mutant 2.0 is used to evaluate their structural stability. As a consequence, for global dataset without Indian sequences, G251V in ORF3a in clade 19A, F308Y and G196V in NSP4 and ORF3a in 19B are the unique amino acid changes which are responsible for defining each clade as they are all deleterious and unstable. Such changes which are common for both global dataset without Indian and dataset of exclusive Indian sequences are R203M in Nucleocapsid for 20B, T85I and Q57H in NSP2 and ORF3a respectively for 20C while for exclusive Indian sequences such unique changes are A97V in RdRp, G339S and G339C in NSP2 in 19A and Q57H in ORF3a in 20A.

A review on evolution of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants based on spike glycoprotein.

Since the inception of SARS-CoV-2 in December 2019, many variants have emerged over time. Some of these variants have resulted in transmissibility changes of the virus and may also have impact on diagnosis, therapeutics and even vaccines, thereby raising particular concerns in the scientific community. The variants which have mutations in Spike glycoprotein are the primary focus as it is the main target for neutralising antibodies. SARS-CoV-2 is known to infect human through Spike glycoprotein and uses receptor-binding domain (RBD) to bind to the ACE2 receptor in human. Thus, it is of utmost importance to study these variants and their corresponding mutations. Such 12 different important variants identified so far are B.1.1.7 (Alpha), B.1.351 (Beta), B.1.525 (Eta), B.1.427/B.1.429 (Epsilon), B.1.526 (Iota), B.1.617.1 (Kappa), B.1.617.2 (Delta), C.37 (Lambda), P.1 (Gamma), P.2 (Zeta), P.3 (Theta) and the recently discovered B.1.1.529 (Omicron). These variants have 84 unique mutations in Spike glycoprotein. To analyse such mutations, multiple sequence alignment of 77681 SARS-CoV-2 genomes of 98 countries over the period from January 2020 to July 2021 is performed followed by phylogenetic analysis. Also, characteristics of new emerging variants are elaborately discussed. The individual evolution of these mutation points and the respective variants are visualised and their characteristics are also reported. Moreover, to judge the characteristics of the non-synonymous mutation points (substitutions), their biological functions are evaluated by PolyPhen-2 while protein structural stability is evaluated using I-Mutant 2.0.

Bioinformatics pipeline unveils genetic variability to synthetic vaccine design for Indian SARS-CoV-2 genomes.

In the worrisome scenarios of various waves of SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, a comprehensive bioinformatics pipeline is essential to analyse the virus genomes in order to understand its evolution, thereby identifying mutations as signature SNPs, conserved regions and subsequently to design epitope based synthetic vaccine. We have thus performed multiple sequence alignment of 4996 Indian SARS-CoV-2 genomes as a case study using MAFFT followed by phylogenetic analysis using Nextstrain to identify virus clades. Furthermore, based on the entropy of each genomic coordinate of the aligned sequences, conserved regions are identified. After refinement of the conserved regions, based on its length, one conserved region is identified for which the primers and probes are reported for virus detection. The refined conserved regions are also used to identify T-cell and B-cell epitopes along with their immunogenic and antigenic scores. Such scores are used for selecting the most immunogenic and antigenic epitopes. By executing this pipeline, 40 unique signature SNPs are identified resulting in 23 non-synonymous signature SNPs which provide 28 amino acid changes in protein. On the other hand, 12 conserved regions are selected based on refinement criteria out of which one is selected as the potential target for virus detection. Additionally, 22 MHC-I and 21 MHC-II restricted T-cell epitopes with 10 unique HLA alleles each and 17 B-cell epitopes are obtained for 12 conserved regions. All the results are validated both quantitatively and qualitatively which show that from genetic variability to synthetic vaccine design, the proposed pipeline can be used effectively to combat SARS-CoV-2.

Phylogenetic analysis of 17271 Indian SARS-CoV-2 genomes to identify temporal and spatial hotspot mutations.

The second wave of SARS-CoV-2 has hit India hard and though the vaccination drive has started, moderate number of COVID affected patients is still present in the country, thereby leading to the analysis of the evolving virus strains. In this regard, multiple sequence alignment of 17271 Indian SARS-CoV-2 sequences is performed using MAFFT followed by their phylogenetic analysis using Nextstrain. Subsequently, mutation points as SNPs are identified by Nextstrain. Thereafter, from the aligned sequences temporal and spatial analysis are carried out to identify top 10 hotspot mutations in the coding regions based on entropy. Finally, to judge the functional characteristics of all the non-synonymous hotspot mutations, their changes in proteins are evaluated as biological functions considering the sequences by using PolyPhen-2 while I-Mutant 2.0 evaluates their structural stability. For both temporal and spatial analysis, there are 21 non-synonymous hotspot mutations which are unstable and damaging.

Hotspot Mutations in SARS-CoV-2.

Since its emergence in Wuhan, China, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread very rapidly around the world, resulting in a global pandemic. Though the vaccination process has started, the number of COVID-affected patients is still quite large. Hence, an analysis of hotspot mutations of the different evolving virus strains needs to be carried out. In this regard, multiple sequence alignment of 71,038 SARS-CoV-2 genomes of 98 countries over the period from January 2020 to June 2021 is performed using MAFFT followed by phylogenetic analysis in order to visualize the virus evolution. These steps resulted in the identification of hotspot mutations as deletions and substitutions in the coding regions based on entropy greater than or equal to 0.3, leading to a total of 45 unique hotspot mutations. Moreover, 10,286 Indian sequences are considered from 71,038 global SARS-CoV-2 sequences as a demonstrative example that gives 52 unique hotspot mutations. Furthermore, the evolution of the hotspot mutations along with the mutations in variants of concern is visualized, and their characteristics are discussed as well. Also, for all the non-synonymous substitutions (missense mutations), the functional consequences of amino acid changes in the respective protein structures are calculated using PolyPhen-2 and I-Mutant 2.0. In addition to this, SSIPe is used to report the binding affinity between the receptor-binding domain of Spike protein and human ACE2 protein by considering L452R, T478K, E484Q, and N501Y hotspot mutations in that region.

Genome-wide analysis of 10664 SARS-CoV-2 genomes to identify virus strains in 73 countries based on single nucleotide polymorphism.

Since the onslaught of SARS-CoV-2, the research community has been searching for a vaccine to fight against this virus. However, during this period, the virus has mutated to adapt to the different environmental conditions in the world and made the task of vaccine design more challenging. In this situation, the identification of virus strains is very much timely and important task. We have performed genome-wide analysis of 10664 SARS-CoV-2 genomes of 73 countries to identify and prepare a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) dataset of SARS-CoV-2. Thereafter, with the use of this SNP data, the advantage of hierarchical clustering is taken care of in such a way so that Average Linkage and Complete Linkage with Jaccard and Hamming distance functions are applied separately in order to identify the virus strains as clusters present in the SNP data. In this regard, the consensus of both the clustering results are also considered while Silhouette index is used as a cluster validity index to measure the goodness of the clusters as well to determine the number of clusters or virus strains. As a result, we have identified five major clusters or virus strains present worldwide. Apart from quantitative measures, these clusters are also visualized using Visual Assessment of Tendency (VAT) plot. The evolution of these clusters are also shown. Furthermore, top 10 signature SNPs are identified in each cluster and the non-synonymous signature SNPs are visualised in the respective protein structures. Also, the sequence and structural homology-based prediction along with the protein structural stability of these non-synonymous signature SNPs are reported in order to judge the characteristics of the identified clusters. As a consequence, T85I, Q57H and R203M in NSP2, ORF3a and Nucleocapsid respectively are found to be responsible for Cluster 1 as they are damaging and unstable non-synonymous signature SNPs. Similarly, F506L and S507C in Exon are responsible for both Clusters 3 and 4 while Clusters 2 and 5 do not exhibit such behaviour due to the absence of any non-synonymous signature SNPs. In addition to all these, the code, SNP dataset, 10664 labelled SARS-CoV-2 strains and additional results as supplementary are provided through our website for further use.

An indole alkaloid from a tribal folklore inhibits immediate early event in HSV-2 infected cells with therapeutic efficacy in vaginally infected mice.

Herpes genitalis, caused by HSV-2, is an incurable genital ulcerative disease transmitted by sexual intercourse. The virus establishes life-long latency in sacral root ganglia and reported to have synergistic relationship with HIV-1 transmission. Till date no effective vaccine is available, while the existing therapy frequently yielded drug resistance, toxicity and treatment failure. Thus, there is a pressing need for non-nucleotide antiviral agent from traditional source. Based on ethnomedicinal use we have isolated a compound 7-methoxy-1-methyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (HM) from the traditional herb Ophiorrhiza nicobarica Balkr, and evaluated its efficacy on isolates of HSV-2 in vitro and in vivo. The cytotoxicity (CC50), effective concentrations (EC50) and the mode of action of HM was determined by MTT, plaque reduction, time-of-addition, immunofluorescence (IFA), Western blot, qRT-PCR, EMSA, supershift and co-immunoprecipitation assays; while the in vivo toxicity and efficacy was evaluated in BALB/c mice. The results revealed that HM possesses significant anti-HSV-2 activity with EC50 of 1.1-2.8 µg/ml, and selectivity index of >20. The time kinetics and IFA demonstrated that HM dose dependently inhibited 50-99% of HSV-2 infection at 1.5-5.0 µg/ml at 2-4 h post-infection. Further, HM was unable to inhibit viral attachment or penetration and had no synergistic interaction with acyclovir. Moreover, Western blot and qRT-PCR assays demonstrated that HM suppressed viral IE gene expression, while the EMSA and co-immunoprecipitation studies showed that HM interfered with the recruitment of LSD-1 by HCF-1. The in vivo studies revealed that HM at its virucidal concentration was nontoxic and reduced virus yield in the brain of HSV-2 infected mice in a concentration dependent manner, compared to vaginal tissues. Thus, our results suggest that HM can serve as a prototype to develop non-nucleotide antiviral lead targeting the viral IE transcription for the management of HSV-2 infections.