PTHrP treatment fails to rescue bone defects caused by Hedgehog pathway inhibition in young mice.

The advent of molecular targeted therapies offers the hope of therapeutic advance in the fight against cancer. However, this hope is tempered by recent findings that certain targeted therapies may have unique side effects. The Hedgehog (HH) pathway is a potential target for treatment of several cancers, including basal cell carcinoma and a subset of medulloblastoma. Recent clinical trials in adults have shown responses to HH pathway inhibition in both basal cell carcinoma and medulloblastoma. However, concerns have been raised about the use of HH pathway inhibitors in children because of the role the HH pathway plays in development. Indeed, young mice treated with the HH pathway inhibitor HhAntag developed severe bone defects, including premature differentiation of chondrocytes, thinning of cortical bone, and fusion of the growth plate. In an effort to lessen the severity of bone defects caused by HhAntag, we treated young mice simultaneously with HhAntag and parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), which functions downstream of Indian Hedgehog to maintain chondrocytes in a proliferative state. The results show that whereas treatment with PTHrP causes a significant increase in trabecular bone, it does not prevent fusion of the growth plate induced by HhAntag.

Statins repress hedgehog signaling in medulloblastoma with no bone toxicities.

The Hedgehog (Hh) pathway plays an indispensable role in bone development and genetic activation of the pathway results in medulloblastoma (MB), the most common malignant brain tumor in children. Inhibitors of Hh pathway (such as vismodegib and sonedigib), which are used to treat MB, cause irreversible defects in bone growth in young children. Cholesterol is required for the activation of the Hh pathway, and statins, inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis, suppress MB growth by repressing Hh signaling in tumor cells. Here, we investigate the role of cholesterol biosynthesis in the proliferation and Hh signaling in chondrocytes, and examine the bone development in mice after statin treatment. Statins significantly inhibited MB growth in young mice, but caused no defects in bone development. Conditional deletion of NADP steroid dehydrogenase-like (NSDHL), an enzyme necessary for cholesterol biosynthesis, suppressed cholesterol synthesis in chondrocytes, and disrupted the growth plate in mouse femur and tibia, indicating the important function of intracellular cholesterol in bone development. Hh pathway activation and the proliferation of chondrocytes were inhibited by statin treatment in vitro; however, statins did not impair bone growth in vivo due to insufficient penetration into the bone. Our studies reveal a critical role of cholesterol in bone development, and support the utilization of statins for treatment of MB as well as other Hh pathway-associated malignancies.

Dynamic interaction of TTDA with TFIIH is stabilized by nucleotide excision repair in living cells.

Transcription/repair factor IIH (TFIIH) is essential for RNA polymerase II transcription and nucleotide excision repair (NER). This multi-subunit complex consists of ten polypeptides, including the recently identified small 8-kDa trichothiodystrophy group A (TTDA)/ hTFB5 protein. Patients belonging to the rare neurodevelopmental repair syndrome TTD-A carry inactivating mutations in the TTDA/hTFB5 gene. One of these mutations completely inactivates the protein, whereas other TFIIH genes only tolerate point mutations that do not compromise the essential role in transcription. Nevertheless, the severe NER-deficiency in TTD-A suggests that the TTDA protein is critical for repair. Using a fluorescently tagged and biologically active version of TTDA, we have investigated the involvement of TTDA in repair and transcription in living cells. Under non-challenging conditions, TTDA is present in two distinct kinetic pools: one bound to TFIIH, and a free fraction that shuttles between the cytoplasm and nucleus. After induction of NER-specific DNA lesions, the equilibrium between these two pools dramatically shifts towards a more stable association of TTDA to TFIIH. Modulating transcriptional activity in cells did not induce a similar shift in this equilibrium. Surprisingly, DNA conformations that only provoke an abortive-type of NER reaction do not result into a more stable incorporation of TTDA into TFIIH. These findings identify TTDA as the first TFIIH subunit with a primarily NER-dedicated role in vivo and indicate that its interaction with TFIIH reflects productive NER.

Leukotriene Synthesis Is Critical for Medulloblastoma Progression.

PURPOSE: Here, we examined the role of leukotrienes, well-known inflammatory mediators, in the tumorigenesis of hedgehog pathway-associated medulloblastoma, and tested the efficacies of antagonists of leukotriene biosynthesis in medulloblastoma treatment.Experimental Design: We examined the leukotriene levels in medulloblastoma cells by ELISA. We next tested whether leukotriene synthesis in medulloblastoma cells relied on activation of hedgehog pathway, or the presence of hedgehog ligand secreted by astrocytes. We then investigated whether leukotriene mediated hedgehog-induced Nestin expression in tumor cells. The functions of leukotriene in tumor cell proliferation and tumor growth in medulloblastoma were determined through knocking down 5-lipoxygenase (a critical enzyme for leukotriene synthesis) by shRNAs, or using 5-lipoxygenase-deficient mice. Finally, the efficacies of antagonists of leukotriene synthesis in medulloblastoma treatment were tested in vivo and in vitro. RESULTS: Leukotriene was significantly upregulated in medulloblastoma cells. Increased leukotriene synthesis relied on hedgehog ligand secreted by astrocytes, a major component of medulloblastoma microenvironment. Leukotriene stimulated tumor cells to express Nestin, a cytoskeletal protein essential for medulloblastoma growth. Genetic blockage of leukotriene synthesis dramatically suppressed medulloblastoma cell proliferation and tumor growth in vivo. Pharmaceutical inhibition of leukotriene synthesis markedly repressed medulloblastoma cell proliferation, but had no effect on proliferation of normal neuronal progenitors. Moreover, antagonists of leukotriene synthesis exhibited promising tumor inhibitory efficacies on drug-resistant medulloblastoma. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings reveal a novel signaling pathway that is critical for medulloblastoma cell proliferation and tumor progression, and that leukotriene biosynthesis represents a promising therapeutic target for medulloblastoma treatment.

Statins Synergize with Hedgehog Pathway Inhibitors for Treatment of Medulloblastoma.

Purpose: The role of cholesterol biosynthesis in hedgehog pathway activity and progression of hedgehog pathway medulloblastoma (Hh-MB) were examined in vivo Statins, commonly used cholesterol-lowering agents, were utilized to validate cholesterol biosynthesis as a therapeutic target for Hh-MB.Experimental Design: Bioinformatic analysis was performed to evaluate the association between cholesterol biosynthesis with hedgehog group medulloblastoma in human biospecimens. Alterations in hedgehog signaling were evaluated in medulloblastoma cells after inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis. The progression of endogenous medulloblastoma in mice was examined after genetic blockage of cholesterol biosynthesis in tumor cells. Statins alone, or in combination with vismodegib (an FDA-approved Smoothened antagonist), were utilized to inhibit medulloblastoma growth in vivoResults: Cholesterol biosynthesis was markedly enhanced in Hh-MB from both humans and mice. Inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis dramatically decreased Hh pathway activity and reduced proliferation of medulloblastoma cells. Statins effectively inhibited medulloblastoma growth in vivo and functioned synergistically in combination with vismodegib.Conclusions: Cholesterol biosynthesis is required for Smoothened activity in the hedgehog pathway, and it is indispensable for the growth of Hh-MB. Targeting cholesterol biosynthesis represents a promising strategy for treatment of Hh-MB. Clin Cancer Res; 24(6); 1375-88. ©2018 AACR.

Developmental defects and male sterility in mice lacking the ubiquitin-like DNA repair gene mHR23B.

mHR23B encodes one of the two mammalian homologs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RAD23, a ubiquitin-like fusion protein involved in nucleotide excision repair (NER). Part of mHR23B is complexed with the XPC protein, and this heterodimer functions as the main damage detector and initiator of global genome NER. While XPC defects exist in humans and mice, mutations for mHR23A and mHR23B are not known. Here, we present a mouse model for mHR23B. Unlike XPC-deficient cells, mHR23B(-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblasts are not UV sensitive and retain the repair characteristics of wild-type cells. In agreement with the results of in vitro repair studies, this indicates that mHR23A can functionally replace mHR23B in NER. Unexpectedly, mHR23B(-/-) mice show impaired embryonic development and a high rate (90%) of intrauterine or neonatal death. Surviving animals display a variety of abnormalities, including retarded growth, facial dysmorphology, and male sterility. Such abnormalities are not observed in XPC and other NER-deficient mouse mutants and point to a separate function of mHR23B in development. This function may involve regulation of protein stability via the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway and is not or only in part compensated for by mHR23A.

Astrocytes Promote Medulloblastoma Progression through Hedgehog Secretion.

Astrocytes, the most abundant type of glial cells in the brain, play critical roles in supporting neuronal development and brain function. Although astrocytes have been frequently detected in brain tumors, including medulloblastoma (MB), their functions in tumorigenesis are not clear. Here, we demonstrate that astrocytes are essential components of the MB tumor microenvironment. Tumor-associated astrocytes (TAA) secrete the ligand sonic hedgehog (Shh), which is required for maintaining MB cell proliferation despite the absence of its primary receptor Patched-1 (Ptch1). Shh drives expression of Nestin in MB cells through a smoothened-dependent, but Gli1-independent mechanism. Ablation of TAA dramatically suppresses Nestin expression and blocks tumor growth. These findings demonstrate an indispensable role for astrocytes in MB tumorigenesis and reveal a novel Ptch1-independent Shh pathway involved in MB progression. Cancer Res; 77(23); 6692-703. ©2017 AACR.

Nestin Mediates Hedgehog Pathway Tumorigenesis.

The intermediate filament protein Nestin serves as a biomarker for stem cells and has been used to identify subsets of cancer stem-like cells. However, the mechanistic contributions of Nestin to cancer pathogenesis are not understood. Here, we report that Nestin binds the hedgehog pathway transcription factor Gli3 to mediate the development of medulloblastomas of the hedgehog subtype. In a mouse model system, Nestin levels increased progressively during medulloblastoma formation, resulting in enhanced tumor growth. Conversely, loss of Nestin dramatically inhibited proliferation and promoted differentiation. Mechanistic investigations revealed that the tumor-promoting effects of Nestin were mediated by binding to Gli3, a zinc finger transcription factor that negatively regulates hedgehog signaling. Nestin binding to Gli3 blocked Gli3 phosphorylation and its subsequent proteolytic processing, thereby abrogating its ability to negatively regulate the hedgehog pathway. Our findings show how Nestin drives hedgehog pathway-driven cancers and uncover in Gli3 a therapeutic target to treat these malignancies. Cancer Res; 76(18); 5573-83. ©2016 AACR.

Whole-exome identifies RXRG and TH germline variants in familial isolated prolactinoma.

Familial isolated pituitary adenoma (FIPA) is a rare genetic disorder. In a subset of FIPA families AIP germline mutations have been reported, but in most FIPA cases the exact genetic defect remains unknown. The present study aimed to determine the genetic basis of FIPA in a Brazilian family. Three siblings presented with isolated prolactin genes. Further mutation screening was performed using whole-exome sequencing and all likely causative mutations were validated by Sanger sequencing. In silico analysis and secreting pituitary adenoma diagnosed through clinical, biochemical and imaging testing. Sanger sequencing was used to genotype candidate prolactinoma-mutated additional predictive algorithms were applied to prioritize likely pathogenic variants. No mutations in the coding and flanking intronic regions in the MEN1, AIP and PRLR genes were detected. Whole-exome sequencing of three affected siblings revealed novel, predicted damaging, heterozygous variants in three different genes: RXRG, REXO4 and TH. In conclusion, the RXRG and TH possibly pathogenic variants may be associated with isolated prolactinoma in the studied family. The possible contribution of these genes to additional FIPA families should be explored.

Anti-tumour compounds illudin S and Irofulven induce DNA lesions ignored by global repair and exclusively processed by transcription- and replication-coupled repair pathways.

Illudin S is a natural sesquiterpene drug with strong anti-tumour activity. Inside cells, unstable active metabolites of illudin cause the formation of as yet poorly characterised DNA lesions. In order to identify factors involved in their repair, we have performed a detailed genetic survey of repair-defective mutants for responses to the drug. We show that 90% of illudin's lethal effects in human fibroblasts can be prevented by an active nucleotide excision repair (NER) system. Core NER enzymes XPA, XPF, XPG, and TFIIH are essential for recovery. However, the presence of global NER initiators XPC, HR23A/HR23B and XPE is not required, whereas survival, repair and recovery from transcription inhibition critically depend on CSA, CSB and UVS, the factors specific for transcription-coupled NER. Base excision repair and non-homologous end-joining of DNA breaks do not play a major role in the processing of illudin lesions. However, active RAD18 is required for optimal cell survival, indicating that the lesions also block replication forks, eliciting post-replication-repair-like responses. However, the translesion-polymerase DNA pol eta is not involved. We conclude that illudin-induced lesions are exceptional in that they appear to be ignored by all of the known global repair systems, and can only be repaired when trapped in stalled replication or transcription complexes. We show that the semisynthetic illudin derivative hydroxymethylacylfulvene (HMAF, Irofulven), currently under clinical trial for anti-tumour therapy, acts via the same mechanism.

Relative levels of the two mammalian Rad23 homologs determine composition and stability of the xeroderma pigmentosum group C protein complex.

Mammalian cells express two Rad23 homologs, HR23A and HR23B, which have been implicated in regulation of proteolysis via the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. Recently, the proteins have been shown to stabilize xeroderma pigmentosum group C (XPC) protein that is involved in DNA damage recognition for nucleotide excision repair (NER). Because the vast majority of XPC forms a complex with HR23B rather than HR23A, we investigated possible differences between the two Rad23 homologs in terms of their effects on the XPC protein. In wild-type mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), endogenous XPC was found to be relatively stable, while its steady-state level and stability appeared significantly reduced by targeted disruption of the mHR23B gene, but not by that of mHR23A. Loss of both mHR23 genes caused a strong further reduction of the XPC protein level. Quantification of the two mHR23 proteins revealed that in normal cells mHR23B is actually approximately 10 times more abundant than mHR23A. In addition, overexpression of mHR23A in the mHR23A/B double knock out cells restored not only the steady-state level and stability of the XPC protein, but also cellular NER activity to near wild-type levels. These results indicate that the two Rad23 homologs are largely functionally equivalent in NER, and that the difference in expression levels explains for a major part the difference in complex formation with as well as stabilization effects on XPC.

Generation of a mouse model of atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor of the central nervous system through combined deletion of Snf5 and p53.

Malignant rhabdoid tumors arise in several anatomic locations and are associated with poor outcomes. In the brain, these tumors are known as atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumors (AT/RT). While genetically engineered models for malignant rhabdoid tumors exist, none of them recapitulate AT/RT, for which preclinical models remain lacking. In the majority of AT/RT, LOH occurs at the genetic locus SNF5 (Ini1/BAF47/Smarcb1), which functions as a subunit of the SWI/SNF chromatin-remodeling complex and a tumor suppressor in familial and sporadic malignant rhabdoid tumors. Therefore, we generated mice in which Snf5 was ablated specifically in nestin-positive and/or glial fibrillary acid protein (GFAP)-positive progenitor cells of the developing central nervous system (CNS). Snf5 ablation in nestin-positive cells resulted in early lethality that could not be rescued by loss of p53. However, Snf5 ablation in GFAP-positive cells caused a neurodegenerative phenotype exacerbated by p53 loss. Notably, these double mutants exhibited AT/RT development, associated with an earlier failure in granule neuron migration in the cerebellum, reduced neuronal projections in the hippocampus, degeneration of the corpus callosum, and ataxia and seizures. Gene expression analysis confirmed that the tumors that arose in Snf5/p53 mutant mice were distinct from other neural tumors and most closely resembled human AT/RT. Our findings uncover a novel role for Snf5 in oligodendrocyte generation and survival, and they offer evidence of the first genetically engineered mouse model for AT/RT in the CNS.

Menin epigenetically represses Hedgehog signaling in MEN1 tumor syndrome.

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) is an inherited tumor syndrome that includes susceptibility to pancreatic islet tumors. This syndrome results from mutations in the MEN1 gene, encoding menin. Although menin acts as an oncogenic cofactor for mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) fusion protein-mediated histone H3 lysine 4 methylation, the precise basis for how menin suppresses gene expression and proliferation of pancreatic beta cells remains poorly understood. Here, we show that menin ablation enhances Hedgehog signaling, a proproliferative and oncogenic pathway, in murine pancreatic islets. Menin directly interacts with protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5), a negative regulator of gene transcription. Menin recruits PRMT5 to the promoter of the Gas1 gene, a crucial factor for binding of Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) ligand to its receptor PTCH1 and subsequent activation of the Hedgehog signaling pathway, increases repressive histone arginine symmetric dimethylation (H4R3m2s), and suppresses Gas1 expression. Notably, MEN1 disease-related menin mutants have reduced binding to PRMT5, and fail to impart the repressive H4R3m2s mark at the Gas1 promoter, resulting in its elevated expression. Pharmacologic inhibition of Hedgehog signaling significantly reduces proliferation of insulinoma cells, and expression of Hedgehog signaling targets including Ptch1, in MEN1 tumors of mice. These findings uncover a novel link between menin and Hedgehog signaling whereby menin/PRMT5 epigenetically suppresses Hedgehog signaling, revealing it as a target for treating MEN1 tumors.

Glucocorticoid compounds modify smoothened localization and hedgehog pathway activity.

The Hedgehog signaling pathway is linked to a variety of diseases, notably a range of cancers. The first generation of drug screens identified Smoothened (Smo), a membrane protein essential for signaling, as an attractive drug target. Smo localizes to the primary cilium upon pathway activation, and this transition is critical for the response to Hedgehog ligands. In a high content screen directly monitoring Smo distribution in Hedgehog-responsive cells, we identified different glucocorticoids as specific modulators of Smo ciliary accumulation. One class promoted Smo accumulation, conferring cellular hypersensitivity to Hedgehog stimulation. In contrast, a second class inhibited Smo ciliary localization and signaling activity by both wild-type Smo, and mutant forms of Smo, SmoM2, and SmoD473H, that are refractory to previously identified Smo antagonists. These findings point to the potential for developing glucocorticoid-based pharmacological modulation of Smo signaling to treat mutated drug-resistant forms of Smo, an emerging problem in long-term cancer therapy. They also raise a concern about potential crosstalk of glucocorticoid drugs in the Hedgehog pathway, if therapeutic administration exceeds levels associated with on-target transcriptional mechanisms of glucocorticoid action.

The Hedgehog's tale: developing strategies for targeting cancer.

Research into basic developmental biology has frequently yielded insights into cancer biology. This is particularly true for the Hedgehog (HH) pathway. Activating mutations in the HH pathway cause a subset of sporadic and familial, skin (basal cell carcinoma) and brain (medulloblastoma) tumours. Furthermore, the growth of many human tumours is supported by HH pathway activity in stromal cells. Naturally occurring and synthetic inhibitors of HH signalling show great promise in animal models and in early clinical studies. However, it remains unclear how many cancers will ultimately benefit from these new, molecularly targeted therapies.

Transient inhibition of the Hedgehog pathway in young mice causes permanent defects in bone structure.

The Hedgehog (Hh) pathway plays critical roles in normal development and in tumorigenesis. We generated Gli-luciferase transgenic mice to evaluate the Smo inhibitor, HhAntag, by whole animal functional imaging. HhAntag rapidly reduced systemic luciferase activity in 10- to 14-day-old mice following oral dosing. Although pathway activity was restored 2 days after drug removal, brief inhibition caused permanent defects in bone growth. HhAntag inhibited proliferation and promoted differentiation of chondrocytes, leading to dramatic expansion of the hypertrophic zone. After drug removal, osteoblasts invaded the cartilage plate, mineralization occurred, and there was premature fusion of the growth plate resulting in permanent disruption of bone epiphyses.

Versatile DNA damage detection by the global genome nucleotide excision repair protein XPC.

To investigate how the nucleotide excision repair initiator XPC locates DNA damage in mammalian cell nuclei we analyzed the dynamics of GFP-tagged XPC. Photobleaching experiments showed that XPC constantly associates with and dissociates from chromatin in the absence of DNA damage. DNA-damaging agents retard the mobility of XPC, and UV damage has the most pronounced effect on the mobility of XPC-GFP. XPC exhibited a surprising distinct dynamic behavior and subnuclear distribution compared with other NER factors. Moreover, we uncovered a novel regulatory mechanism for XPC. Under unchallenged conditions, XPC is continuously exported from and imported into the nucleus, which is impeded when NER lesions are present. XPC is omnipresent in the nucleus, allowing a quick response to genotoxic stress. To avoid excessive DNA probing by the low specificity of the protein, the steady-state level in the nucleus is controlled by nucleus-cytoplasm shuttling, allowing temporally higher concentrations of XPC in the nucleus under genotoxic stress conditions.

A novel regulation mechanism of DNA repair by damage-induced and RAD23-dependent stabilization of xeroderma pigmentosum group C protein.

Primary DNA damage sensing in mammalian global genome nucleotide excision repair (GG-NER) is performed by the xeroderma pigmentosum group C (XPC)/HR23B protein complex. HR23B and HR23A are human homologs of the yeast ubiquitin-domain repair factor RAD23, the function of which is unknown. Knockout mice revealed that mHR23A and mHR23B have a fully redundant role in NER, and a partially redundant function in embryonic development. Inactivation of both genes causes embryonic lethality, but appeared still compatible with cellular viability. Analysis of mHR23A/B double-mutant cells showed that HR23 proteins function in NER by governing XPC stability via partial protection against proteasomal degradation. Interestingly, NER-type DNA damage further stabilizes XPC and thereby enhances repair. These findings resolve the primary function of RAD23 in repair and reveal a novel DNA-damage-dependent regulation mechanism of DNA repair in eukaryotes, which may be part of a more global damage-response circuitry.