Learning critical thinking skills online: can precision teaching help?

Critical thinking is identified as a key educational outcome in higher education curricula; however, it is not trivial to support students in building this multifaceted skill. In this study, we evaluated a brief online learning intervention focusing on informal fallacy identification, a hallmark critical-thinking skill. The intervention used a bite-sized video learning approach, which has been shown to promote student engagement. Video-based learning was implemented within a precision teaching (PT) framework, which modulates the exposure of individual learners to the learning material to enable them to build 'fluency' in the targeted skills. In one of the learning conditions, PT was applied synergistically with domain-general problem-based training to support generalisation. The intervention consisted of two learning episodes and was administered to three groups (learning conditions) of 19 participants each: a PT fluency-based training group; a PT + group, where PT was combined with problem-based training; and a self-directed learning control group. All three groups showed comparable improvements in fallacy identification on taught (post-episode tests) and unseen materials (post-intervention assessment), with lower-scoring participants showing higher gains than high-scoring participants. The results of the knowledge retention tests a week later were also comparable between groups. Importantly, in the domain-general fallacy-identification assessment (post-intervention), the two PT groups showed higher improvements than the control group. These findings suggest that the integration of bite-sized video learning technologies with PT can improve students' critical-thinking skills. Furthermore, PT, on its own or combined with problem-based training, can improve their skill to generalise learning to novel contexts. We discuss the educational implications of our findings.

Consensus paper: Language and the cerebellum: an ongoing enigma.

In less than three decades, the concept "cerebellar neurocognition" has evolved from a mere afterthought to an entirely new and multifaceted area of neuroscientific research. A close interplay between three main strands of contemporary neuroscience induced a substantial modification of the traditional view of the cerebellum as a mere coordinator of autonomic and somatic motor functions. Indeed, the wealth of current evidence derived from detailed neuroanatomical investigations, functional neuroimaging studies with healthy subjects and patients and in-depth neuropsychological assessment of patients with cerebellar disorders shows that the cerebellum has a cardinal role to play in affective regulation, cognitive processing, and linguistic function. Although considerable progress has been made in models of cerebellar function, controversy remains regarding the exact role of the "linguistic cerebellum" in a broad variety of nonmotor language processes. This consensus paper brings together a range of different viewpoints and opinions regarding the contribution of the cerebellum to language function. Recent developments and insights in the nonmotor modulatory role of the cerebellum in language and some related disorders will be discussed. The role of the cerebellum in speech and language perception, in motor speech planning including apraxia of speech, in verbal working memory, in phonological and semantic verbal fluency, in syntax processing, in the dynamics of language production, in reading and in writing will be addressed. In addition, the functional topography of the linguistic cerebellum and the contribution of the deep nuclei to linguistic function will be briefly discussed. As such, a framework for debate and discussion will be offered in this consensus paper.

Gender-based personality traits in physically aggressive and non-aggressive antisocial behaviours.

BACKGROUND: The current study aimed to understand the role of callousness, affective dissonance, and two subtypes of sensation seeking personality traits - 1) disinhibition and 2) thrill and adventure seeking - in physically aggressive and non-aggressive antisocial behaviours (ASB) among educated youth and to explore the gender differences in them. PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE: An online survey was sent to a large sample of students at a UK university. Initially, a sample of N = 539 participants was collected but after screening out the data, N = 429 participants were included for analyses based on the sampling criteria. RESULTS: Callousness, disinhibition, and affective dissonance significantly predicted both antisocial behaviour subtypes. We found multidimensional nature of callousness in predicting antisocial behaviours, and an intriguing relationship between thrill and adventure seeking and affective dissonance. Interesting gender differences emerged. CONCLUSIONS: This study has implications for the understanding of the competitive roles of gender-based psychopathological personality traits in terms of callousness and affective dissonance and sensation seeking tendencies in physically aggressive and non-aggressive antisocial behaviours.

Neurophysiological and behavioural correlates of coherent motion perception in dyslexia.

Coherent motion perception was tested in nine adolescents with dyslexia and 10 control participants matched for age and IQ using low contrast stimuli with three levels of coherence (10%, 25% and 40%). Event-related potentials (ERPs) and behavioural performance data were obtained. No significant between-group differences were found in performance accuracy and response latencies of correct responses, for early (P1, N1, and P2) or late (P3) ERP peaks. However, attenuated early ERPs in the 10% coherent condition correlated significantly with lower performance accuracy (r = -.66) and with the magnitude of literacy deficit (r = -.46).

Striking the right balance: motor difficulties in children and adults with dyslexia.

Balance difficulties are an enduring feature of dyslexia research, however results have been inconsistent. We propose that between-study heterogeneity may be attributable to variability in balance tasks, balance measurement, participant age, and inclusion of comorbid disorders such as ADHD. This study attempted to clarify these issues, employing quantitative, continuous measures of balance and blindfolded balance, and using both adult and child participants without comorbid ADHD. Eighty-seven individuals participated: dyslexic adults (n = 17), matched adult controls (n = 30), dyslexic children (n = 16) and matched child controls (n = 24). The study found significant balance deficits for the child dyslexic group in the eyes-open task and a result approaching significance in the blindfolded task. By contrast, the adult dyslexic group showed significant deficits in the blindfolded task only. This result is interpreted in terms of lack of sensitivity of the non-blindfolded balance task for adults, owing to ceiling effects. This highlights the need for the use of age-appropriate tests, and may explain some of the heterogeneity in the literature. It is concluded that there is a significant incidence of balance difficulties in children and adults with dyslexia, even for those without comorbid attention deficit.

Problems in Audiovisual Filtering for Children with Special Educational Needs.

There is pervasive evidence that problems in sensory processing occur across a range of developmental disorders, but their aetiology and clinical significance remain unclear. The present study investigated the relation between sensory processing and literacy skills in children with and without a background of special educational needs (SEN). Twenty-six children aged between 7 and 12 years old, from both regular classes and SEN programmes, participated. Following baseline tests of literacy, fine motor skills and naming speed, two sets of instruments were administered: the carer-assessed Child Sensory Profile-2 and a novel Audiovisual Animal Stroop (AVAS) test. The SEN group showed significantly higher ratings on three Child Sensory Profile-2 quadrants, together with body position ratings. The SEN participants also showed a specific deficit when required to ignore an accompanying incongruent auditory stimulus on the AVAS. Interestingly, AVAS performance correlated significantly with literacy scores and with the sensory profile scores. It is proposed that the children with SEN showed a specific deficit in "filtering out" irrelevant auditory input. The results highlight the importance of including analysis of sensory processes within theoretical and applied approaches to developmental differences and suggest promising new approaches to the understanding, assessment, and support of children with SEN.

Procedural learning difficulties: reuniting the developmental disorders?

During the past 30 years, research into developmental disorders has fragmented, emphasizing differences rather than commonalities. We propose that reunification might be achieved by using a "neural-systems" approach. Deficits in dyslexia are attributed to an intact declarative learning system combined with an impaired procedural learning system--a network that includes prefrontal language systems and basal ganglia, parietal and cerebellar structures. A typology is provided for other prevalent learning disabilities; this framework focuses on different learning skills in the understanding of learning disabilities and emphasizes the diagnostic significance of "secondary" symptoms. This approach highlights the need for development of "neurocognitive" tests to probe the function of components of each neural system and improve strategies for explanation, diagnosis and support of developmental disorders.

Development of Dyslexia: The Delayed Neural Commitment Framework.

It is now evident that explanations of many developmental disorders need to include a network perspective. In earlier work, we proposed that developmental dyslexia (DD) is well-characterized in terms of impaired procedural learning within the language networks, with the cerebellum being the key structure involved. Here, we deepen the analysis to include the child's developmental process of constructing these networks. The "Delayed Neural Commitment (DNC)" framework proposes that, in addition to slower skill acquisition, dyslexic children take longer to build (and to rebuild) the neural networks that underpin the acquisition of reading. The framework provides an important link backwards in time to the development of executive function networks and the earlier development of networks for language and speech. It is consistent with many theories of dyslexia while providing fruitful suggestions for further research at the genetic, brain, cognitive and behavioral levels of explanation. It also has significant implications for assessment and teaching.

Prisms throw light on developmental disorders.

Prism adaptation, in which the participant adapts to prismatic glasses that deflect vision laterally, is a specific test of cerebellar function. Fourteen dyslexic children (mean age 13.5 years); 14 children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD): 6 of whom had comorbid dyslexia; and 12 control children matched for age and IQ underwent prism adaptation (assessed by clay throwing accuracy to a 16.7 degrees visual displacement). All 8 DCD children, 5 of the 6 children with comorbid DCD and dyslexia and 10 of the 14 dyslexic children showed an impaired rate of adaptation, thereby providing strong evidence of impaired cerebellar function in DCD and developmental dyslexia. Taken together with other emerging evidence of overlap between developmental disorders, these findings highlight the importance of complementing research on the individual disorders with research on the commonalities between the disorders.

"Cerebellar Challenge" for Older Adults: Evaluation of a Home-Based Internet Intervention.

There is converging evidence that maintenance of function in the multiple connectivity networks involving the cerebellum is a key requirement for healthy aging. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of a home-based, internet-administered "cerebellar challenge" intervention designed to create progressive challenges to vestibular function, multi-tasking, and dynamic coordination. Participants (n = 98, mean age 68.2, SD 6.6) were randomly allocated to either intervention (the cerebellar challenge training for 10 weeks) or no intervention. All participants undertook an initial series of pre-tests, and then an identical set of post-tests following the intervention period. The test battery comprised five suites of tests designed to evaluate cognitive-sensori-motor-affective functions, including Physical Coordination, Memory, Language Dexterity, Fluid Thinking and Affect. The intervention group showed significant pre- to post improvements in 9 of the 18 tests, whereas the controls improved significantly on one only. Furthermore, the intervention group showed significantly greater improvement than the controls on the "Physical Coordination" suite of tests, with evidence also of differential improvement on the Delayed Picture Recall test. Frequency of intervention use correlated significantly with the improvement in balance and in peg-moving speed. It is concluded that an internet-based cerebellar challenge programme for older adults can lead to benefits in balance, coordination and declarative memory. Limitations and directions for further research are outlined.

Attitudes towards people with intellectual disability in the UK and Libya: A cross-cultural comparison.

BACKGROUND: The attitude of the general population towards people with intellectual disability (ID) provides important background for policy development. Furthermore, because of changes in attitudes across cultures, it is vital to ground policy development for each country in data from that country. AIMS: This paper aimed to undertake a cross-cultural study, investigating attitudes to people with ID in Libya in the year 2011, and to compare the Libyan data with those for the UK. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: This paper provides a cross-cultural analysis of attitudes to people with ID, using a questionnaire study of three groups in Libya and in the UK: science students, psychology students and professionals in ID support. The questionnaire used was the established Community Living Attitude Scales for Mental Retardation (CLAS-MR). OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: In terms of the four CLAS-MR sub-scales, the Libyan sample showed significantly less favourable scores on Empowerment, Similarity and Exclusion than the UK sample, but no significant difference on the Sheltering sub-scale. Within-country analysis indicated no main effects of gender on all four sub-scales in Libya and the UK. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to undertake quantitative analysis of attitudes to people with ID in Libya. The attitudes were in general less favourable than in the UK and other Western countries, but showed similarities with studies of attitudes to people with ID in Pakistan.

Evidence for a neuroanatomical difference within the olivo-cerebellar pathway of adults with dyslexia.

Recent behavioural evidence has indicated that cerebellar impairment may be strongly associated with dyslexia. Previous neuroanatomical research has shown the presence of anomalies within the cerebral cortex of brains of dyslexic people. This paper reports equivalent analyses on the cerebella of the same brain specimens. Cross sectional areas and cell packing densities of Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex, and cells in the inferior olivary and dentate nuclei of four dyslexic and four control brains were measured using the dissector method. A significant difference in mean cell area in medial posterior cerebellar cortex was identified, with the dyslexic cells having larger mean area. Furthermore, analysis of cell size distributions not only confirmed the significant differences in the posterior lobe, with an increased proportion of large neurons and fewer small neurons for the dyslexics, but also revealed significant differences in the anterior lobe, again with a pattern of more large and fewer small cells. Similar distributional differences were seen in the inferior olive. No differences were found in the flocculonodular lobe or the dentate nucleus. While caution is necessary in generalising from the results given the small number of specimens, together with the age difference, the neuroanatomical data established here provides further converging evidence of cerebellar abnormality in dyslexia.

Reading words and pseudowords in dyslexia: ERP and behavioural tests in English-speaking adolescents.

The study reports neurophysiological and behavioural correlates of lexical decision processes in English speaking dyslexic and non-dyslexic readers. Nine dyslexic adolescents (ages 15.6-17.8) and 9 control (ages 15.4-19.3) adolescents were tested, and the event related potentials (ERPs) to words and pseudowords were recorded simultaneously with behavioural measures. As expected, both groups showed significantly lower accuracy and longer response times for the pseudowords. Furthermore, overall performance (in terms of lower accuracy and longer response times) was significantly worse for the dyslexic group. The ERP analysis indicated that the later positive peaks, P4 (around 400 ms from stimulus onset) and P5 (around 500 ms), were significantly delayed and attenuated for the dyslexic group. Analysis of the early ERP peaks recorded in the occipitotemporal region led to an interesting dissociation. The controls showed a left lateralised Condition effect, with the amplitude of P1 significantly smaller to words than pseudowords. By contrast, there was no such lexical effect for the dyslexic group, with equal P1 amplitudes for words and pseudowords, at the control level for pseudowords. The deviations in the early ERP components of dyslexics support the evidence of deficits in pre-lexical visual word form recognition within the first 110 ms of activation together with altered hemispheric asymmetry. In addition, the slowed and attenuated late ERP components and weaker behavioural performance of the dyslexic group highlight deficits in the later, cognitive, processing stages.

Cerebellar volume and cerebellar metabolic characteristics in adults with dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia is associated with problems in a range of linguistic and non-linguistic skills. Some of those problems have been attributed to dysfunction of the cerebellum and its associated neural systems. Two studies of cerebellar structure were undertaken by our group. In Study 1, white and grey matter volumes in the cerebellum were investigated in 10 dyslexic and 11 control adult male, right-handed participants using whole-brain volumetric MRI (3D-T1-weighted data sets with a spatial resolution of 0.8 x 0.8 x 0.8 mm(3)). The key finding was that the dyslexic group had a larger volume of white matter in both cerebellar hemispheres, differences that remained significant even when adjusting for total cerebellar volume. In Study 2, with the same participants, long-echo-time proton spectroscopy was used to investigate the ratios of the metabolites choline (Cho), N-acetylaspartate (NAA), and creatine (Cr) in the cerebellar hemispheres and vermis. Two significant differences were found: The dyslexic group had a lower ratio of NAA/Cho in the right cerebellar hemisphere together with a higher ratio of Cho/Cr in the left cerebellar hemisphere. Although it is difficult to interpret the volumetric and spectroscopic results unambiguously, taken together they suggest two possible interpretations: excessive connectivity or abnormal myelination.

Follow-up of an exercise-based treatment for children with reading difficulties.

This study reports the results of a long-term follow-up of an exercise-based approach to dyslexia-related disorders (Reynolds, Nicolson, & Hambly, Dyslexia, 2003; 9(1): 48-71). In the initial study, children at risk of dyslexia were identified in 3 years of a junior school. One half then undertook a 6 month, home-based exercise programme. Evaluation after 6 months indicated that the exercise group improved significantly more than the controls on a range of cognitive and motor skills. Critics had suggested that the improvement might be attributable to artifactual issues including Hawthorne effects; an initial literacy imbalance between the groups; and inclusion of non-dyslexic participants. The present study evaluated the issue of whether the gains were maintained over the following 18 months, and whether they were in some sense artifactual as postulated by critics of the original study. Comparison of (age-adjusted) initial and follow-up performance indicated significant gains in motor skill, speech/language fluency, phonology, and working memory. Both dyslexic and non-dyslexic low achieving children benefited. There was also a highly significant reduction in the incidence of symptoms of inattention. Interestingly there were no significant changes in speeded tests of reading and spelling, but there was a significant improvement in (age-adjusted) reading (NFER). It is concluded that the gains were indeed long-lasting, and that the alternative hypotheses based on potential artifacts were untenable, and that the exercise treatment therefore achieved its applied purpose. Further research is needed to determine the underlying reasons for the benefits. Possible (and potentially synergistic) explanations include: improved cerebellar function (neural level); improved learning ability and/or attentional ability (cognitive level); improved self-esteem and self-efficacy (affective level); and improved parental/familial support (social level).

Dyslexia, learning, and pedagogical neuroscience.

The explosion in neuroscientific knowledge has profound implications for education, and we advocate the establishment of the new discipline of 'pedagogical neuroscience' designed to combine psychological, medical, and educational perspectives. We propose that specific learning disabilities provide the crucible in which the discipline may be forged, illustrating the scope by consideration of developmental dyslexia. Current approaches have failed to establish consensus on fundamental issues such as theoretical causes, diagnostic methods, and treatment strategies. We argue that these difficulties arise from diagnosis via behavioural or cognitive symptoms, even though they may arise from diverse causes. Rather than an inconvenience, variability of secondary symptoms within and across learning disabilities can inform both diagnosis and treatment. We illustrate how brain-based theories lead to radical restructuring of diagnostic methods and propose that there is an urgent need to develop genetic and brain-based diagnostic methods designed to lead to individually-appropriate remediation and treatment methods.

Balancing and pointing tasks in dyslexic and control adults.

Developmental dyslexia may affect as much as 15% of the population, but the aetiology of the disorder is still being debated. The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that cerebellar dysfunction could lead to the myriad of symptoms seen in dyslexic individuals, both in literacy and non-literacy domains. The cerebellum is crucial to the fluent performance of motor skills. Previous studies have found that dyslexic children are worse than control children on certain motor and balancing tasks. Here the performance of 28 dyslexic compared to 26 control adults on rapid pointing and balancing measures, tasks which are thought to reflect cerebellar function, was investigated. There were no significant differences between the dyslexic and control participants on the balancing tasks or when the speed and accuracy of pointing were analysed separately. However, when the speed and accuracy of pointing were combined, the dyslexic participants showed poorer performance than the controls (p = 0.045). Furthermore, there were significant relationships between performance on the pointing task and literacy skills, and regression analysis showed that the error and speed of pointing contributed significantly to the variance in literacy skill. The implications for the role of the cerebellum and processing speed in dyslexia are discussed.

Impaired balancing ability in dyslexic children.

Children with developmental dyslexia struggle to learn to read and spell despite adequate intelligence and educational opportunity. Several lines of research are attempting to establish the neurobiological basis of dyslexia, and low-level sensory and motor deficits have been found in dyslexic populations; furthermore, behavioural and imaging data point to cerebellar dysfunction in dyslexia. To investigate this, normal readers (n=19) and children with developmental dyslexia (n=16) were asked to perform various cognitive, literacy, and balancing tasks. Children balanced on the left or right foot, with eyes open or closed, for a period of 10 s during which their movements were recorded with a motion-tracking system. Dyslexic children were less stable than the control children in both eyes-open conditions (left foot P=0.02, right foot P=0.012). While there were no group differences during the eyes-closed conditions, the dyslexic children dropped a foot to correct balance significantly more often than control children (P<0.05). Incidence analysis showed that 50% of the dyslexic group fell into the 'impaired' category on the eyes-open balancing tasks; when the mean balancing scores and the foot drops were considered, only three of our dyslexic children showed no evidence of balancing difficulties. There were strong correlations between reading and spelling scores and the mean eyes-open balancing score (r=0.52 and 0.44, respectively). Thus, while not all children with developmental dyslexia show impaired balancing skills, low-level motor dysfunction may be associated with impaired literacy development. This could be due to several factors, including the involvement of the cerebellum, the magnocellular system, or more general developmental immaturity.

The dyslexia ecosystem.

It is all too easy, in everyday interactions in dyslexia, to see the interactions in a semi-adversarial fashion--parents competing to get more support for children, researchers competing to get more support for their theories, schools trying to get more money for their programmes. Such a set of analyses may be described as 'zero-sum'. If one party gains, the other one loses. If, by contrast, one views the dyslexia community as a complex, inter-dependent 'ecosystem', a much more positive view emerges. It becomes clear that there are solutions for the system as a whole that are in a sense optimal for the system as a whole, solutions that are 'win-win', that is, all parties gain and none lose. In this article I develop this concept of the 'dyslexia ecosystem', and outline targets that would lead to progress for the ecosystem as a whole.