Probability of Two-Step Photoexcitation of Electron from Valence Band to Conduction Band through Doping Level in TiO2.

For an Ir-doped TiO2 (Ir:TiO2) photocatalyst, we examined the most dominant electron-transfer path for the visible-light-driven photocatalytic performance. The Ir:TiO2 photocatalyst showed a much higher photocatalytic activity under visible-light irradiation than nondoped TiO2 after grafting with the cocatalyst of Fe3+. For the Ir:TiO2 photocatalyst, the two-step photoexcitation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction band through the Ir doping level occurred upon visible-light irradiation, as observed by electron spin resonance spectroscopy. The two-step photoexcitation through the doping level was found to be a more stable process with a lower recombination rate of hole-electron pairs than the two-step photoexcitation process through an oxygen vacancy. Once electrons are photoexcited to the conduction band by the two-step excitation, the electrons can easily transfer to the surface because the conduction band is a continuous electron path, whereas the electrons photoexcited at only the doping level could not easily transfer to the surface because of the discontinuity of this path. The observed two-step photoexcitation from the valence band to the conduction band through the doping level significantly contributes to the enhancement of the photocatalytic performance.

Training labels for hippocampal segmentation based on the EADC-ADNI harmonized hippocampal protocol.

BACKGROUND: The European Alzheimer's Disease Consortium and Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) Harmonized Protocol (HarP) is a Delphi definition of manual hippocampal segmentation from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) that can be used as the standard of truth to train new tracers, and to validate automated segmentation algorithms. Training requires large and representative data sets of segmented hippocampi. This work aims to produce a set of HarP labels for the proper training and certification of tracers and algorithms. METHODS: Sixty-eight 1.5 T and 67 3 T volumetric structural ADNI scans from different subjects, balanced by age, medial temporal atrophy, and scanner manufacturer, were segmented by five qualified HarP tracers whose absolute interrater intraclass correlation coefficients were 0.953 and 0.975 (left and right). Labels were validated as HarP compliant through centralized quality check and correction. RESULTS: Hippocampal volumes (mm(3)) were as follows: controls: left = 3060 (standard deviation [SD], 502), right = 3120 (SD, 897); mild cognitive impairment (MCI): left = 2596 (SD, 447), right = 2686 (SD, 473); and Alzheimer's disease (AD): left = 2301 (SD, 492), right = 2445 (SD, 525). Volumes significantly correlated with atrophy severity at Scheltens' scale (Spearman's ρ = <-0.468, P = <.0005). Cerebrospinal fluid spaces (mm(3)) were as follows: controls: left = 23 (32), right = 25 (25); MCI: left = 15 (13), right = 22 (16); and AD: left = 11 (13), right = 20 (25). Five subjects (3.7%) presented with unusual anatomy. CONCLUSIONS: This work provides reference hippocampal labels for the training and certification of automated segmentation algorithms. The publicly released labels will allow the widespread implementation of the standard segmentation protocol.

The EADC-ADNI Harmonized Protocol for manual hippocampal segmentation on magnetic resonance: evidence of validity.

BACKGROUND: An international Delphi panel has defined a harmonized protocol (HarP) for the manual segmentation of the hippocampus on MR. The aim of this study is to study the concurrent validity of the HarP toward local protocols, and its major sources of variance. METHODS: Fourteen tracers segmented 10 Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) cases scanned at 1.5 T and 3T following local protocols, qualified for segmentation based on the HarP through a standard web-platform and resegmented following the HarP. The five most accurate tracers followed the HarP to segment 15 ADNI cases acquired at three time points on both 1.5 T and 3T. RESULTS: The agreement among tracers was relatively low with the local protocols (absolute left/right ICC 0.44/0.43) and much higher with the HarP (absolute left/right ICC 0.88/0.89). On the larger set of 15 cases, the HarP agreement within (left/right ICC range: 0.94/0.95 to 0.99/0.99) and among tracers (left/right ICC range: 0.89/0.90) was very high. The volume variance due to different tracers was 0.9% of the total, comparing favorably to variance due to scanner manufacturer (1.2), atrophy rates (3.5), hemispheric asymmetry (3.7), field strength (4.4), and significantly smaller than the variance due to atrophy (33.5%, P < .001), and physiological variability (49.2%, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: The HarP has high measurement stability compared with local segmentation protocols, and good reproducibility within and among human tracers. Hippocampi segmented with the HarP can be used as a reference for the qualification of human tracers and automated segmentation algorithms.

Spectroscopic investigation of the mechanism of photocatalysis.

Reaction mechanisms of various kinds of photocatalysts have been reviewed based on the recent reports, in which various spectroscopic techniques including luminol chemiluminescence photometry, fluorescence probe method, electron spin resonance (ESR), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy were applied. The reaction mechanisms elucidated for bare and modified TiO2 were described individually. The modified visible light responsive TiO2 photocatalysts, i.e., Fe(III)-deposited metal-doped TiO2 and platinum complex-deposited TiO2, were studied by detecting paramagnetic species with ESR, •O2- (or H2O2) with chemiluminescence photometry, and OH radicals with a fluorescence probe method. For bare TiO2, the difference in the oxidation mechanism for the different crystalline form was investigated by the fluorescence probe method, while the adsorption and decomposition behaviors of several amino acids and peptides were investigated by 1H-NMR spectroscopy.

Hematite (α-Fe2O3) with Oxygen Defects: The Effect of Heating Rate for Photocatalytic Performance.

Hematite (α-Fe2O3) emerges as an enticing material for visible-light-driven photocatalysis owing to its remarkable stability, low toxicity, and abundance. However, its inherent shortcomings, such as a short hole diffusion length and high recombination rate, hinder its practical application. Recently, oxygen vacancies (Vo) within hematite have been demonstrated to modulate its photocatalytic attributes. The effects of Vo can be broadly categorized into two opposing aspects: (1) acting as electron donors, enhancing carrier conductivity, and improving photocatalytic performance and (2) acting as surface carrier traps, accelerating excited carrier recombination, and deteriorating performance. Critically, the generation rate, distribution, role, and behavior of Vo significantly differ for synthesis methods due to differences in formation mechanisms and oxygen diffusion. This complexity hampers simplified discussions of Vo, necessitating careful investigation and nuanced discussion tailored to the specific method and conditions employed. Among various approaches, hydrothermal synthesis offers a simple and cost-effective route. Here, we demonstrate a hydrothermal synthesis method for Vo introduction to hematite using a carbon source, where variations in the heating rate have not been previously explored in terms of their influence on Vo generation. The analyses revealed that the concentration of Vo was maximized at a heating rate of 16 °C/min, indicative of a high density of surface defects. With regard to photocatalytic performance, elevated heating rates (16 °C/min) fostered the formation of Vo primarily on the hematite surface. The photocatalytic activity was 7.1 times greater than that of the sample prepared at a low heating rate (2 °C/min). These findings highlight the crucial role of surface defects, as opposed to bulk defects, in promoting hematite photocatalysis. Furthermore, the facile control over Vo concentration achievable via manipulating the heating rate underscores the promising potential of this approach for optimizing hematite photocatalysts.

Effects of electromagnetic fields emitted from W-CDMA-like mobile phones on sleep in humans.

In this study, we investigated subjective and objective effects of mobile phones using a Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W-CDMA)-like system on human sleep. Subjects were 19 volunteers. Real or sham electromagnetic field (EMF) exposures for 3 h were performed before their usual sleep time on 3 consecutive days. They were exposed to real EMF on the second or third experimental day in a double-blind design. Sleepiness and sleep insufficiency were evaluated the next morning. Polysomnograms were recorded for analyses of the sleep variables and power spectra of electroencephalograms (EEG). No significant differences were observed between the two conditions in subjective feelings. Sleep parameters including sleep stage percentages and EEG power spectra did not differ significantly between real and sham exposures. We conclude that continuous wave EMF exposure for 3 h from a W-CDMA-like system has no detectable effects on human sleep.

Reinvestigation of the photocatalytic reaction mechanism for Pt-complex-modified TiO2 under visible light irradiation by means of ESR spectroscopy and chemiluminescence photometry.

A plausible reaction mechanism for a visible light photocatalyst of TiO(2) modified with platinum(IV) chloride (PtCl) was proposed on the basis of the measurements with electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy and chemiluminescence photometry. Under visible light (λ > 500 nm) irradiation, the deposited Pt(IV) chloride is charge-separated into Pt(3+) and Cl radical by the excitation of the ligand-to-metal charge transfer. The Pt(3+) gives an electron to the conduction band of TiO(2), which has Pt(3+) return to Pt(4+). The electron in the conduction band reduces the oxygen molecule into O(2)(-). The presence of Pt(3+) and O(2)(-) has been elucidated in the present study. Moreover, valence band holes of TiO(2) were detected by ESR spectroscopy under visible light irradiation. Therefore, besides being used to oxidize organic compounds, the photogenerated Cl radicals likely receive electrons from the TiO(2) valence band by visible light excitation, producing the valence band holes. Because the valence band holes have a stronger oxidation power than Cl radicals, the excitation of valence band electrons to Cl radicals would be the origin of the high photocatalytic activity of the PtCl-modified TiO(2) under visible light irradiation.

Gender differences in alpha-[(11)C]MTrp brain trapping, an index of serotonin synthesis, in medication-free individuals with major depressive disorder: a positron emission tomography study.

Women are at higher risk than men for developing major depressive disorder (MDD), but the mechanisms underlying this higher risk are unknown. Here, we report proportionally normalized alpha-[(11)C]methyl-L-tryptophan brain trapping constant (alpha-[(11)C]MTrp K*(N)), an index of serotonin synthesis, in 25 medication-free individuals with MDD and in 25 gender- and age-matched healthy subjects who were studied using positron emission tomography (PET). Comparisons of alpha-[(11)C]MTrp K*(N) values between the men and women were conducted at the voxel and cluster levels using Statistical Parametric Mapping 2 (SPM2) analysis. In addition, the alpha-[(11)C]MTrp K*(N) values on both sides of the brain were extracted and compared to identify the left to right differences, as well as the gender differences. Women with MDD displayed higher alpha-[(11)C]MTrp K*(N) than men in the inferior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), parahippocampal gyrus, precuneus, superior parietal lobule, and occipital lingual gyrus. In a matched group of normal subjects the gender differences were opposite from those found in MDD patients. Significant hemispheric differences in fronto-limbic structures between men and women with MDD were also observed. The K*(N) extracted from the volumes identified in MDD patients and in male and female normal subjects suggested no significant differences between males and females. In conclusion, depressed women have higher serotonin synthesis in multiple regions of the prefrontal cortex and limbic system involved with mood regulation, as compared with depressed men. Gender differences in brain serotonin synthesis may be related to higher risk for MDD in women.

Alterations in brain serotonin synthesis in male alcoholics measured using positron emission tomography.

BACKGROUND: A consistent association between low endogenous 5HT function and high alcohol preference has been observed, and a number of serotonergic manipulations (uptake blockers, agonists) alter alcohol consumption in animals and humans. Studies have also shown an inverse relationship between alcohol use and cerebrospinal fluid levels of serotonin metabolites, suggesting that chronic alcohol consumption produces alterations in serotonin synthesis or release. METHODS: The objective of the study was to characterize regional brain serotonin synthesis in nondepressed chronic alcoholics at treatment entry in comparison to normal nonalcoholic controls using PET and the tracer alpha-[(11)C]-methyl-L-tryptophan. RESULTS: Comparisons of the alcoholics and controls by SPM found that there were significant differences in the rate of serotonin synthesis between groups. Serotonin synthesis was significantly lower among alcoholics in Brodmann Area (BA) 9, 10, and 32. However, serotonin synthesis among the alcoholics group was significantly higher than controls at BA19 in the occipital lobe and around the transverse temporal convolution in the left superior temporal gyrus (BA41). In addition, there were correlations between regional serotonin synthesis and a quantity-frequency measure of alcohol consumption. Regions showing a significant negative correlation with QF included the bilateral rectus gyri (BA11) in the orbitofrontal area, the bilateral medial frontal area (BA6), and the right amygdala. CONCLUSIONS: Current alcoholism is associated with serotonergic abnormalities in brain regions that are known to be involved in planning, judgment, self-control, and emotional regulation.

Effects of short-term W-CDMA mobile phone base station exposure on women with or without mobile phone related symptoms.

To investigate possible health effects of mobile phone use, we conducted a double-blind, cross-over provocation study to confirm whether subjects with mobile phone related symptoms (MPRS) are more susceptible than control subjects to the effect of electromagnetic fields (EMF) emitted from base stations. We sent questionnaires to 5,000 women and obtained 2,472 valid responses from possible candidates; from these, we recruited 11 subjects with MPRS and 43 controls. There were four EMF exposure conditions, each of which lasted 30 min: continuous, intermittent, and sham exposure with and without noise. Subjects were exposed to EMF of 2.14 GHz, 10 V/m (W-CDMA), in a shielded room to simulate whole-body exposure to EMF from base stations, although the exposure strength we used was higher than that commonly received from base stations. We measured several psychological and cognitive parameters pre- and post-exposure, and monitored autonomic functions. Subjects were asked to report on their perception of EMF and level of discomfort during the experiment. The MPRS group did not differ from the controls in their ability to detect exposure to EMF; nevertheless they consistently experienced more discomfort, regardless of whether or not they were actually exposed to EMF, and despite the lack of significant changes in their autonomic functions. Thus, the two groups did not differ in their responses to real or sham EMF exposure according to any psychological, cognitive or autonomic assessment. In conclusion, we found no evidence of any causal link between hypersensitivity symptoms and exposure to EMF from base stations.

An index of 5-HT synthesis changes during early antidepressant treatment: alpha-[11C]methyl-L-tryptophan PET study.

The antidepressant selective serotonin transporter inhibitors (SSRIs) are clinically active after a delay of several weeks. Indeed, the rapid increase of serotonin (5-HT) caused by SSRIs, stimulates the 5-HT(1A) autoreceptors, which exert a negative feedback on the 5-HT neurotransmission. Only when autoreceptors are desensitized, can SSRIs exert their therapeutic activity. The 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist pindolol has been used to accelerate the clinical effects of antidepressant by preventing the negative feedback. Using the alpha-[(11)C]methyl-L-tryptophan/positron emission tomography (PET), the goal of the present double-blind, randomized study was to compare the changes in alpha-[(11)C]methyl-L-tryptophan trapping, an index of serotonin synthesis, in patients suffering from unipolar depression treated with the SSRI citalopram (20 mg/day) plus placebo versus patients treated with citalopram plus pindol (7.5 mg/day). PET and Hamilton depression rating scale (HDRS-17) were performed at baseline, and after 10 and 24 days of antidepressant treatment. Results show that the combination citalopram plus pindol, compared to citalopram alone shows a more rapid and greater increase of an index of 5-HT synthesis in prefrontal cortex (BA 9). This research is the first human PET study demonstrating that, after 24 days, the combination SSRIs plus pindolol produces a greater increase of the metabolism of serotonin in the prefrontal cortex, an area associated to depressive symptoms.

Effects of value and reward magnitude on feedback negativity and P300.

Feedback negativity is a negative component of the event-related brain potential observed 250-300 ms after feedback stimuli. The present study investigated the effects of value (correct or incorrect) and reward magnitude (no, small or large) on feedback negativity and P300. Feedback negativity was larger after incorrect feedback than after correct feedback, irrespective of reward magnitude. In contrast, P300 amplitude increased with reward magnitude, irrespective of value. The amplitude of feedback negativity was correlated with a trait score of negative affect and not positive affect, whereas P300 amplitude was correlated with positive affect and not negative affect. These results suggest that value and reward magnitude are processed separately in the brain.

Cerebral glucose metabolism associated with a fear network in panic disorder.

The present study was performed to assess cerebral glucose metabolism in patients with panic disorder using positron emission tomography. F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography with voxel-based analysis was used to compare regional brain glucose utilization in 12 nonmedicated panic disorder patients, without their experiencing panic attacks during positron emission tomography acquisition, with that in 22 healthy controls. Panic disorder patients showed appreciably high state anxiety before scanning, and exhibited significantly higher levels of glucose uptake in the bilateral amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus, and in the midbrain, caudal pons, medulla, and cerebellum than controls. These results provided the first functional neuroimaging support in human patients for the neuroanatomical hypothesis of panic disorder focusing on the amygdala-based fear network.

Cerebral white matter blood flow is constant during human non-rapid eye movement sleep: a positron emission tomographic study.

This study aimed to identify brain regions with the least decreased cerebral blood flow (CBF) and their relationship to physiological parameters during human non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Using [(15)O]H(2)O positron emission tomography, CBF was measured for nine normal young adults during nighttime. As NREM sleep progressed, mean arterial blood pressure and whole brain mean CBF decreased significantly; arterial partial pressure of CO(2) and, selectively, relative CBF of the cerebral white matter increased significantly. Absolute CBF remained constant in the cerebral white matter, registering 25.9 +/- 3.8 during wakefulness, 25.8 +/- 3.3 during light NREM sleep, and 26.9 +/- 3.0 (ml.100 g(-1).min(-1)) during deep NREM sleep (P = 0.592), and in the occipital cortex (P = 0.611). The regression slope of the absolute CBF significantly differed with respect to arterial partial pressure of CO(2) between the cerebral white matter (slope 0.054, R = - 0.04) and frontoparietal association cortex (slope - 0.776, R = - 0.31) (P = 0.005) or thalamus (slope - 1.933, R = - 0.47) (P = 0.004) and between the occipital cortex (slope 0.084, R = 0.06) and frontoparietal association cortex (P = 0.021) or thalamus (P < 0.001), and, with respect to mean arterial blood pressure, between the cerebral white matter (slope - 0.067, R = - 0.10) and thalamus (slope 0.637, R = 0.31) (P = 0.044). The cerebral white matter CBF keeps constant during NREM sleep as well as the occipital cortical CBF, and may be specifically regulated by both CO(2) vasoreactivity and pressure autoregulation.

Photocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction by copper oxide nanocluster-grafted niobate nanosheets.

Amorphous copper oxide (Cu(II)) nanoclusters function as efficient electrocatalysts for the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) to carbon monoxide (CO). In addition to promoting electrocatalytic activity, Cu(II) nanoclusters act as efficient cocatalyts for CO2 photoreduction when grafted onto the surface of a semiconductor (light harvester), such as niobate (Nb3O8(-)) nanosheets. Here, the photocatalytic activity and reaction pathway of Cu(II)-grafted Nb3O8(-) nanosheets was investigated using electron spin resonance (ESR) analysis and isotope-labeled molecules (H2(18)O and (13)CO2). The results of the labeling experiments demonstrated that under UV irradiation, electrons are extracted from water to produce oxygen ((18)O2) and then reduce CO2 to produce (13)CO. ESR analysis confirmed that excited holes in the valence band of Nb3O8(-) nanosheets react with water, and that excited electrons in the conduction band of Nb3O8(-) nanosheets are injected into the Cu(II) nanoclusters through the interface and are involved in the reduction of CO2 into CO. The Cu(II) nanocluster-grafted Nb3O8(-) nanosheets are composed of nontoxic and abundant elements and can be facilely synthesized by a wet chemical method. The nanocluster grafting technique described here can be applied for the surface activation of various semiconductor light harvesters, such as metal oxide and/or metal chalcogenides, and is expected to aid in the development of efficient CO2 photoreduction systems.

Dysfunction of ventrolateral prefrontal cortex underlying social anxiety disorder: A multi-channel NIRS study.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is characterized by strong fear and anxiety during social interactions. Although ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) activity in response to emotional stimuli is related to pathological anxiety, little is known about the relationship between VLPFC activity and social anxiety. This study aimed to investigate whether VLPFC activity was involved in SAD and whether VLPFC activity was related to the level of social anxiety. Twenty-four drug-naïve patients with SAD and 35 healthy controls underwent near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) scanning while performing a verbal fluency task (VFT). Results indicated that, compared to the healthy controls, the SAD patients exhibited smaller changes of oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the VLPFC during the VFT. Furthermore, the right VLPFC activation was negatively correlated with social avoidance. In contrast to the latter, the healthy controls exhibited a positive correlation between changes of oxy-Hb concentrations in the bilateral VLPFC and social fear. Our findings provide evidence for VLPFC dysfunction in SAD, and indicate that the VLPFC dysfunction may contribute to the difference between normal and abnormal social anxiety.

Deactivation by benzodiazepine of the basal forebrain and amygdala in normal humans during sleep: a placebo-controlled [15O]H2O PET study.

OBJECTIVE: The authors' goal was to identify differences in regional brain activity between physiological and benzodiazepine-induced sleep to clarify the brain structures involved in the drug's hypnotic effect. METHOD: Using positron emission tomography, they compared regional cerebral blood flow during non-REM sleep in nine volunteers treated with placebo or triazolam, a short-acting benzodiazepine, in a double-blind, crossover design. RESULTS: Blood flow in the basal forebrain and amygdaloid complexes was lower during non-REM sleep when subjects were given triazolam than when they were given placebo. CONCLUSIONS: The hypnotic effect of the benzodiazepines may be mediated mainly by deactivation of the forebrain control system for wakefulness and also by the anxiolytic effect induced by deactivation of the emotional center.

Functional connectivity revealed by single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) during repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of the motor cortex.

OBJECTIVE: In the present study, we studied effects of 1 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the left primary motor cortex (M1) on regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) using single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). METHODS: SPECT measurements were carried out under two experimental conditions: real and sham stimulation. In sham stimulation, to exclude other components besides currents in the brain in rTMS, we applied sound and electrical stimulation to the skin of the head. 99mTc-ethyl cysteinate dimer was injected during the real or sham stimulation. Images were analyzed with the statistical parametric mapping software (SPM99). Relative differences in adjusted rCBF between two conditions were determined by a voxel-by-voxel paired t test. RESULTS: 1 Hz rTMS at an intensity of 1.1 x active motor threshold evoked increase of rCBF in the contralateral (right) cerebellar hemisphere. Reduction of rCBF was observed in the contralateral M1, superior parietal lobule (most probably corresponding to PE area in the monkey) (Rizzolatti G, Luppino G, Matelli M. Electroenceph clin Neurophysiol 1998;106:283-296), inferior parietal lobule (PF area in the monkey (Rizzolatti et al., 1998)), dorsal and ventral premotor areas (dPM, vPM) and supplementary motor area (SMA). CONCLUSIONS: Increase of rCBF in the contralateral cerebellum must reflect facilitatory connection between the motor cortex and contralateral cerebellum. Reduced rCBF in the contralateral M1 may be produced by transcallosal inhibitory effect of the left motor cortical activation. CBF decrease in the right PM, SMA and parietal cortex may reflect some secondary effects. Low frequency rTMS at an intensity of around threshold for active muscles can evoke rCBF changes. SIGNIFICANCE: We demonstrated that rCBF changes could be elicited even by low frequency rTMS at such a low intensity as the threshold for an active muscle. Combination of rTMS and SPECT is one of powerful tools to study interareal connection within the human brain.

Enhanced photoactivity with nanocluster-grafted titanium dioxide photocatalysts.

Titanium dioxide (TiO2), as an excellent photocatalyst, has been intensively investigated and widely used in environmental purification. However, the wide band gap of TiO2 and rapid recombination of photogenerated charge carriers significantly limit its overall photocatalytic efficiency. Here, efficient visible-light-active photocatalysts were developed on the basis of TiO2 modified with two ubiquitous nanoclusters. In this photocatalytic system, amorphous Ti(IV) oxide nanoclusters were demonstrated to act as hole-trapping centers on the surface of TiO2 to efficiently oxidize organic contaminants, while amorphous Fe(III) or Cu(II) oxide nanoclusters mediate the reduction of oxygen molecules. Ti(IV) and Fe(III) nanoclusters-modified TiO2 exhibited the highest quantum efficiency (QE = 92.2%) and reaction rate (0.69 µmol/h) for 2-propanol decomposition among previously reported photocatalysts, even under visible-light irradiation (420-530 nm). The desirable properties of efficient photocatalytic performance with high stability under visible light with safe and ubiquitous elements composition enable these catalysts feasible for large-scale practical applications.

Differences in cerebral blood flow between missed and generalized seizures with electroconvulsive therapy: a positron emission tomographic study.

While examining the acute effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), we could compare the changes in rCBF between missed (not generalized) and generalized seizures using H(2)(15)O positron emission tomography in patients with depression under anesthesia. In contrast to missed seizures, rCBF was increased extensively, particularly in the centrencephalic structures in generalized seizures. These results further support the centrencephalic theory of seizure generalization.