The Relationship Between Serious Mental Illness and Criminal Offending in Persons Experiencing Homelessness: The Role of Substance Use Disorder.

Individuals who live with mental illness are encumbered by related risk factors that increase the probability of legal involvement. The goal was to determine how homelessness and substance use disorder are intervening factors in the relationship between symptoms of serious mental illness (SMI) and criminal offending. A sample of 210 chronically homeless adults receiving SAMHSA-funded outreach and psychiatric rehabilitation services between 2014 and 2016 was recruited in a study of interventions to address housing in homeless persons with a SMI. Participants were interviewed and data collected were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Statistical analysis showed that homelessness severity mediated the relationship between SMI symptom severity and criminal offenses committed in the past 30 days in participants with a substance use disorder but not in those with no substance use diagnosis. Results show that homelessness and substance use are important to address to possibly alter trajectories for criminal justice involvement.

Resolution of trauma-related guilt following treatment of PTSD in female rape victims: a result of cognitive processing therapy targeting comorbid depression?

BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Although Resick et al. [Resick, P.A., Nishith, P., Weaver, T.L., Astin, M.C., Feuer, C.A., 2002. A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 70, 867-879.] reported comparable results for treating rape-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) using either cognitive-processing therapy (CPT) or prolonged exposure (PE), there was some suggestion that CPT resulted in better outcomes than PE for certain aspects of trauma-related guilt. The present study revisited these findings to examine whether this effect was a function of improvement in a subset of participants with both PTSD and major depressive disorder (MDD). RESULTS: Results indicated that CPT was just as effective in treating "pure" PTSD and PTSD with comorbid MDD in terms of guilt. Clinical significance testing underscored that CPT was more effective in reducing certain trauma-related guilt cognitions than PE. LIMITATIONS: Findings cannot be generalized to men, and only one measure of guilt was used. CONCLUSIONS: The observed superiority of CPT over PE for treating certain guilt cognitions was not due to participant comorbidity. Further research is recommended to untangle the relationship between guilt, depression and differential response to treatment in PTSD following sexual assault trauma.

September 11 attacks: prior interpersonal trauma, dysfunctional cognitions, and trauma response in a midwestern university sample.

Undergraduate college students (N = 133) were assessed for posttrauma and depressive symptomatology, posttrauma cognitions, and previous traumatic experiences 1 month after the September 11 attacks in the United States. Negative beliefs regarding oneself and the world mediated the relationship between prior interpersonal trauma and acute trauma symptoms. Acute depression acted as a mediator between prior interpersonal trauma and negative cognitions of oneself and self-blame cognitions. The results suggest that even in a nonclinical, nontreatment seeking college sample, prior traumatic events can play an important role in an individual's short-term adjustment following indirect exposure to a significant trauma. The differential relationship of negative beliefs on acute trauma symptoms and depression is discussed.

A brief intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder in persons with a serious mental illness.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is common in people with a serious mental illness, but it is often not diagnosed or treated. Recent progress has been made in developing and validating interventions for PTSD in this population, but dropout from treatment can be problematic. The present study evaluated the feasibility and clinical outcomes of a Brief program (three sessions) for the treatment of PTSD in persons with a serious mental illness. METHOD: An open clinical trial was conducted to evaluate the Brief program, which comprises three individual weekly sessions and includes education about trauma and PTSD, as well as instruction in breathing retraining for the self-management of anxiety. Eighteen predominantly minority persons with serious mental illness and PTSD were enrolled in the Brief program and assessed at baseline, 1-month posttreatment, and 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: Acceptability and tolerability of the program were high, with 15 of 18 (83%) study participants completing all three sessions. Interview-based and self-report assessments indicated significant reductions in PTSD symptoms, depression, and other symptoms at posttreatment, with treatment gains maintained at the 3-month follow-up. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION FOR PRACTICE: The results suggest the Brief program may be clinically beneficial to persons with serious mental illnesses and PTSD and indicate that more rigorous research is needed to evaluate the program.

Stress-induced analgesia: prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms in battered versus nonbattered women.

BACKGROUND: Chronic and inescapable trauma is implicated in the stress-induced analgesia (SIA) response. METHODS: A sample of 27 chronically battered women was compared with 28 trauma-exposed nonbattered women on their SIA response at 1 month postindex assault. RESULTS: For the battered women sample, the SIA response at 1 month postindex assault was found to significantly predict an increase in posttraumatic stress disorder-related hyperarousal at 3 months postindex assault. Furthermore, the battered women showed a significant increase in depression symptoms from 1 to 3 months postindex assault compared with the nonbattered women, who showed a significant decrease. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that the chronic and inescapable nature of trauma exposure in the battered women might account for an SIA response that is qualitatively different from that seen in the nonbattered women. It is suggested that the mechanism underlying the SIA response in battered women might be opioid mediated and that it might be responsible for the significant prediction of physiologic hyperarousal. Furthermore, this hyperarousal might moderate the relationship between the SIA response and depression.

Pattern of change in prolonged exposure and cognitive-processing therapy for female rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder.

Curve estimation techniques were used to identify the pattern of therapeutic change in female rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Within-session data on the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Scale were obtained, in alternate therapy sessions, on 171 women. The final sample of treatment completers included 54 prolonged exposure (PE) and 54 cognitive-processing therapy (CPT) completers. For both PE and CPT, a quadratic function provided the best fit for the total PTSD, reexperiencing, and arousal scores. However, a difference in the line of best fit was observed for the avoidance symptoms. Although a quadratic function still provided a better fit for the PE avoidance, a linear function was more parsimonious in explaining the CPT avoidance variance. Implications of the findings are discussed.

A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims.

The purpose of this study was to compare cognitive-processing therapy (CPT) with prolonged exposure and a minimal attention condition (MA) for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. One hundred seventy-one female rape victims were randomized into 1 of the 3 conditions, and 121 completed treatment. Participants were assessed with the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale, the PTSD Symptom Scale, the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Trauma-Related Guilt Inventory. Independent assessments were made at pretreatment, posttreatment, and 3 and 9 months posttreatment. Analyses indicated that both treatments were highly efficacious and superior to MA. The 2 therapies had similar results except that CPT produced better scores on 2 of 4 guilt subscales.

An exploration of comorbid depression among female victims of intimate partner violence with posttraumatic stress disorder.

BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Factors contributing to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and comorbid major depression (MDD) were investigated among female victims of intimate partner violence (IPV). RESULTS: High levels of PTSD (75% of the sample) and MDD (54% of the sample) were observed. Individuals with both PTSD and MDD reported significantly greater levels of PTSD and depression symptoms than individuals with either PTSD alone or without major psychopathology. Individuals with comorbid PTSD and MDD had more maladaptive depressogenic cognitive styles than individuals without PTSD. The three groups were comparable in terms of pre-abuse mental health, childhood trauma history, and relationship violence variables and injuries. Maladaptive schemas did not contribute to the identification of comorbidity caseness, whereas PTSD severity and prior trauma did. Psychological aggression by an abuser and PTSD severity accounted for 52% of the variance in depressive symptoms. LIMITATIONS: Cross-sectional design and lack of trauma-specific cognitive measures. CONCLUSIONS: The findings confirm that comorbid PTSD and MDD is common among IPV victims. The mechanisms that contribute to comorbid depression, however, are unclear, and prospective studies are necessary to delineate the roles that psychological abuse, PTSD severity and prior trauma experiences may have in the development of depression following IPV.

How well does cognitive-behavioral therapy treat symptoms of complex PTSD? An examination of child sexual abuse survivors within a clinical trial.

Are brief cognitive-behavioral treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) also effective for the wider range of symptoms conceptualized as complex PTSD? Female rape victims, most of whom had extensive histories of trauma, were randomly assigned to cognitive-processing therapy, prolonged exposure, or a delayed-treatment waiting-list condition. After determining that both types of treatment were equally effective for treating complex PTSD symptoms, we divided the sample of 121 participants into two groups depending upon whether they had a history of child sexual abuse. Both groups improved significantly over the course of treatment with regard to PTSD, depression, and the symptoms of complex PTSD as measured by the Trauma Symptom Inventory. Improvements were maintained for at least 9 months. Although there were group main effects on the Self and Trauma factors, there were no differences between the two groups at posttreatment once pretreatment scores were covaried. These findings indicate that cognitive-behavioral therapies are effective for patients with complex trauma histories and symptoms patterns.

Prolonged Exposure Therapy and Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Case Study Examining the Impact of a Trauma-Focused Treatment on a Physical Condition.

Previous research has shown that psychological treatments, particularly those employing cognitive techniques, are particularly effective in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). It is presumed that these psychological interventions are effective at ameliorating the IBS by treating an underlying psychological disorder (often an anxiety disorder), which may be contributing to the autonomic reactivity. This case study examined the change in the physical symptoms of IBS for a patient seeking treatment for rape-related PTSD with comorbid conditions of major depression and panic. At posttreatment, the patient no longer met criteria for PTSD, major depression, or panic. In addition, her primary symptom of IBS, diarrhea frequency, was significantly improved. These findings were maintained at 3 and 9 months posttreatment. Implications for the assessment and treatment of IBS patients with PTSD are discussed.

Prediction of numbing and effortful avoidance in female rape survivors with chronic PTSD.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationships among numbing, arousal, intrusion, and avoidance in a sample of 272 female rape survivors. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to test a theoretical model, which posits that hyperarousal and numbing are functionally related mechanisms and intrusions and avoidance are functionally related. Results supported the hypothesis that arousal explained the majority of the variance in numbing beyond that explained by avoidance and intrusion. In addition, intrusive symptoms explained the majority of the variance in effortful avoidance beyond that explained by numbing and arousal. The findings suggest that numbing and effortful avoidance may be separate mechanisms associated with symptoms of arousal and intrusion, respectively.

The accumulative effect of trauma exposure on short-term and delayed verbal memory in a treatment-seeking sample of female rape victims.

The accumulative effect of prior high-magnitude trauma exposure on memory was examined in 73 rape victims, 92% of whom had current posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants were administered the Logical Memory component of the Wechsler Memory Scale, the Quick Test to obtain an estimate of intelligence, and were assessed for prior traumatic experiences. Prior exposure to high-magnitude stressors (e.g., child rape, being kidnapped) was significantly correlated with poorer performance on the memory tasks. Regression analyses controlling for estimated IQ and psychopathology severity demonstrated that magnitude of prior trauma exposure predicted performance on the memory task, suggesting that in the current sample, deficits in verbal memory may be related (in part) to the degree of accumulative stress experienced over the lifetime.

A preliminary investigation of alcohol use during trauma and peritraumatic reactions in female sexual assault victims.

The purpose of these analyses was to investigate the association between reported alcohol use during a sexual assault and perceptions of assault severity and physical and emotional peritraumatic reactions. Self-report data were collected on 57 sexually assaulted college women. Multivariate regression analyses revealed that perception of assault severity mediated the relationship between alcohol use and peritraumatic physical reactions.

A simple method to identify sleep apnea using Holter recordings.

INTRODUCTION: Despite its severe cardiovascular and other consequences, sleep apnea syndrome frequently is undiagnosed. Because apneas result in repeated autonomic arousals associated with cyclic variations in heart rate (CVHR), we hypothesized that sleep apnea syndrome could be identified from simple HR tachograms (graphs of HR vs time) derived from ECG monitoring. METHODS AND RESULTS: HR tachograms were generated from 57 digitized ECGs (46 clinical patients undergoing diagnostic studies and 11 research subjects) obtained during overnight polysomnography. Thirty-three had significant sleep apnea syndrome (apnea-hypopnea index > or = 15). Eight patients had simultaneous Holter recordings during sleep studies (3 with digitized ECGs and 5 with paper ECGs). Duration of CVHR on tachograms was determined. CVHR patterns were characterized as high amplitude (HR changes > or = 20 beats/min per cycle) versus lower amplitude (6-19 beats/min per cycle); or regular (in frequency, amplitude, and morphology) versus irregular. Tachograms were classified as having visible HR changes versus not visible (flat). Twenty-four studies proved to be split-night, so CVHR was quantified for the first 3 hours of each study only. When subjects were dichotomized into shorter (< 20%, < 36 min) and longer (> or = 20%) durations of CVHR, longer CVHR had a positive predictive accuracy of 86% for significant sleep apnea syndrome and 100% for abnormal sleep. When flat tachograms were excluded, negative predictive accuracy for shorter CVHR was 100%. All patients (N = 13) with > 36 min high-amplitude CVHR had significant obstructive sleep apnea. All predictions from Holter-only data were concordant with clinical diagnoses. CONCLUSION: HR tachogram patterns derived from ambulatory ECGs provide a simple method for identifying sleep apnea syndrome and other sleep disturbances in patients without major autonomic dysfunction.

Effect of cognitive behavioral therapy on heart rate variability during REM sleep in female rape victims with PTSD.

Six female rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were assessed for sleep disturbances. Five responded to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and one did not complete treatment. Sympatho-vagal balance was measured using heart rate variability (HRV) during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The treatment responders significantly decreased on HRV while the noncompleter increased. The responders also significantly decreased on sleep disturbances. The noncompleter remained unchanged. Thus a remission in PTSD symptoms following CBT accompanied a reduction in the HRV indicator of sympathetic predominance in REM sleep.