Costs in the Year Following Deceased Donor Kidney Transplantation: Relationships With Renal Function and Graft Failure.

Relationships between renal function and medical costs for deceased donor kidney transplant recipients are not fully quantified post-transplant. We describe these relationships with renal function measured by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and graft failure. The United States Renal Data System identified adults receiving single-organ deceased donor kidneys 2012-2015. Inpatient, outpatient, other facility costs and eGFRs at discharge, 6 and 12 months were included. A time-history of costs was constructed for graft failures and monthly costs in the first year post-transplant were compared to those without failure. The cohort of 24,021 deceased donor recipients had a 2.4% graft failure rate in the first year. Total medical costs exhibit strong trends with eGFR. Recipients with 6-month eGFRs of 30-59 ml/min/1.73m2 have total costs 48% lower than those <30 ml/min/1.73m2. For recipients with graft failure monthly costs begin to rise 3-4 months prior to failure, with incremental costs of over $38,000 during the month of failure. Mean annual total incremental costs of graft failure are over $150,000. Total costs post-transplant are strongly correlated with eGFR. Graft failure in the first year is an expensive, months-long process. Further reductions in early graft failures could yield significant human and economic benefits.

Defining a minimal clinically meaningful difference in 12-month estimated glomerular filtration rate for clinical trials in deceased donor kidney transplantation.

BACKGROUND: A Minimal Clinically Meaningful Difference (MCMD) has not been defined for Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Our goal was to define the MCMD for eGFR anchored to kidney graft failure. METHODS: A systematic review of studies with 12-month eGFR and subsequent renal graft failure was conducted. For observational studies, we calculated hazard ratio (HR) differences between adjacent eGFR intervals weighted by population distribution. Interventional trials yielded therapeutically induced changes in eGFR and failure risk. OPTN data analysis divided 12-month eGFR into bands for Cox regressions comparing adjacent eGFR bands with a death-censored graft survival outcome. RESULTS: Observational studies indicated that lower eGFR was associated with increased death-censored graft failure risk; each 5 ml/min/1.73 m2 12-month eGFR band associated with a weighted incremental HR = 1.12 to 1.23. Clinical trial data found a 5 ml/min/1.73 m2 difference was associated with incremental HR = 1.16 to 1.35. OPTN analyses showed weighted mean HRs across 10, 7, and 5 ml/min/1.73 m2 bands of 1.47, 1.30, and 1.19. CONCLUSIONS: A 5 ml/min/1.73 m2 difference in 12-month eGFR was consistently associated with ~20% increase in death-censored graft failure risk. The magnitude of effect has been interpreted as clinically meaningful in other disease states and should be considered the MCMD in renal transplantation clinical trials.

Vascular access-specific health-related quality of life impacts among hemodialysis patients: qualitative development of the hemodialysis access-related quality of life (HARQ) instrument.

BACKGROUND: End stage kidney disease and hemodialysis dependence are associated with impairments in health-related quality of life (HRQOL), which may be related to vascular access (VA). Few HRQOL measures are VA-specific and none differentiate HRQOL impact by VA type. We developed a VA-targeted HRQOL measure to distinguish the impact of fistulas, grafts and catheters. METHODS: We created an initial item pool based on literature review and then conducted focus groups at 4 US sites with 37 adults and interviews with nine dialysis clinicians about VA's impact on HRQOL. We then drafted the Hemodialysis Access-Related Quality of Life (HARQ) measure and cognitively tested it with 17 hemodialysis patients. Focus group and cognitive interview participants were diverse in age, gender, years on dialysis, and VA. RESULTS: We identified six domains for the HARQ: symptoms, physical functioning, emotional impacts, social and role functioning, sleep, and care-related burdens. Cognitive interviews indicated that items were easily understood and supported content validity. Attributing HRQOL impact to VA as opposed to other hemodialysis burden was challenging for some items. Some items were dropped that were considered redundant by patients, limitations while dressing was added, and reference to VA-specific impact was included for each item. The average Flesch-Kincaid reading grade level for the revised 47-item HARQ was 5.3. CONCLUSIONS: The HARQ features VA-specific content not addressed in other HRQOL measures, making it ideal for comparisons of different VA types and new VA technologies. The psychometric properties of the HARQ will be evaluated in future research.

Angiotensin II for the treatment of distributive shock in the intensive care unit: A US cost-effectiveness analysis.

BACKGROUND: Patients with distributive shock who are unresponsive to traditional vasopressors are commonly considered to have severe distributive shock and are at high mortality risk. Here, we assess the cost-effectiveness of adding angiotensin II to the standard of care (SOC) for severe distributive shock in the US critical care setting from a US payer perspective. METHODS: Short-term mortality outcomes were based on 28-day survival rates from the ATHOS-3 study. Long-term outcomes were extrapolated to lifetime survival using individually estimated life expectancies for survivors. Resource use and adverse event costs were drawn from the published literature. Health outcomes evaluated were lives saved, life-years gained, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained using utility estimates for the US adult population weighted for sepsis mortality. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses assessed uncertainty around results. We analyzed patients with severe distributive shock from the ATHOS-3 clinical trial. RESULTS: The addition of angiotensin II to the SOC saved .08 lives at Day 28 compared to SOC alone. The cost per life saved was estimated to be $108,884. The addition of angiotensin II to the SOC was projected to result in a gain of .96 life-years and .66 QALYs. This resulted in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $12,843 per QALY. The probability of angiotensin II being cost-effective at a threshold of $50,000 per QALY was 86 percent. CONCLUSIONS: For treatment of severe distributive shock, angiotensin II is cost-effective at acceptable thresholds.

Costs Attributable to Arteriovenous Fistula and Arteriovenous Graft Placements in Hemodialysis Patients with Medicare coverage.

INTRODUCTION: Hemodialysis (HD) in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients requires vascular access (VA) through an arteriovenous fistula (AVF), a prosthetic arteriovenous graft (AVG), or a central venous catheter. While AVF or AVG is commonly used for HD, the economic implications of AVF versus AVG use have not been fully established. We describe the healthcare resource utilization and costs of AVF and AVG use for incident ESRD patients in the United States. METHODS: This observational cohort study of AVF and AVG placements used data from the United States Renal Data System to identify and follow access placements. AVF and AVG placements after ESRD onset for incident patients from 2012 to 2014 with continuous Medicare primary coverage were included. All-cause and access-related Medicare costs were averaged over the placement lifetime and expressed as per dialysis-month costs. RESULTS: The analysis included 38,035 AVF placements and 12,789 AVG placements. Total all-cause monthly costs for AVF averaged USD 8,508; mean monthly costs were USD 3,027 for inpatient (IP), USD 3,139 for outpatient (OP), USD 1,572 for physician services, and USD 770 for other care settings. Access-related monthly costs averaged USD 1,699 and represented 20% of all-cause charges for AVFs. Mean all-cause monthly costs for AVG were USD 9,605; by setting monthly costs were USD 3,811 for IP, USD 3,034 for OP, USD 1,881 for physician services and USD 879 for other care settings. Access-related monthly costs averaged USD 2,656 and represented 28% of all-cause charges for AVGs. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONS: This study indicates that costs due to VA are a significant burden on Medicare budgets and on patients. The factors driving access-related utilization and costs merit attention in future research. Both optimizing process of care and discovery innovation may significantly accelerate better stewardship of available healthcare resources.

Clinical Outcomes of Arteriovenous Access in Incident Hemodialysis Patients with Medicare Coverage, 2012-2014.

BACKGROUND: Chronic hemodialysis requires a mode of vascular access through an arteriovenous fistula (AVF), a prosthetic arteriovenous graft (AVG), or a central venous catheter (CVC). AVF is recommended over AVG or CVC due to increased patency and decreased intervention rates for those that mature. AVG are preferred over CVC due to decreased infection and mortality risk. The aims of this study were to evaluate the lifespan of AVF and AVG in maturation, sustained access use, and abandonment. METHODS: The United States Renal Data System (USRDS), Medicare claims, and CROWNWeb were used to identify access placements. Patients with a first end-stage renal disease (ESRD) service from January 1, 2012 to June 30, 2014 with continuous coverage with Medicare as primary payer and ≥1 AVF or AVG placed after ESRD onset were included. Maturation was defined as the first use of the access for hemodialysis recorded in CROWNWeb. Sustained access use was defined as 3 consecutive months of use without catheter placement or replacement. Accesses that were never used at any time post-placement were considered abandoned. RESULTS: The cohort included 38,035 AVF placements and 12,789 AVG placements. Sixty-nine percent of AVF and 72% of AVG matured. Fifty-two percent of AVF and 51% of AVG achieved sustained access use. One quarter of AVF and 14% of AVG were abandoned without use as recorded in CROWNWeb. CONCLUSION: Although considered the gold standard for vascular access, only half of AVF and AVG placements achieved sustained access use. The USRDS database has inherent limitations but provides useful clinical insight into maturation, sustained use, and abandonment.

Estimating the Impact of Novel Digital Therapeutics in Type 2 Diabetes and Hypertension: Health Economic Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Behavioral interventions can meaningfully improve cardiometabolic conditions. Digital therapeutics (DTxs) delivering these interventions may provide benefits comparable to pharmacologic therapies, displacing medications for some patients. OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to estimate the economic impact of a digital behavioral intervention in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and hypertension (HTN) and estimate the impact of clinical inertia on deprescribing medications. METHODS: Decision analytic models estimated health resource savings and cost effectiveness from a US commercial payer perspective. A 3-year time horizon was most relevant to the intervention and payer. Effectiveness of the DTx in improving clinical outcomes was based on cohort studies and published literature. Health resource utilization (HRU), health state utilities, and costs were drawn from the literature with costs adjusted to 2018 dollars. Future costs and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were discounted at 3%. Sensitivity analyses assessed uncertainty. RESULTS: Average HRU savings ranged from $97 to $145 per patient per month, with higher potential benefits in T2DM. Cost-effectiveness acceptability analyses using a willingness-to-pay of $50,000/QALY indicated that the intervention would be cost effective at total 3-year program costs of $6468 and $6620 for T2DM and HTN, respectively. Sensitivity analyses showed that reduced medication costs are a primary driver of potential HRU savings, and the results were robust within values tested. A resistance to deprescribe medications when a patient's clinical outcomes improve can substantially reduce the estimated economic benefits. Our models rely on estimates of clinical effectiveness drawn from limited cohort studies with DTxs and cannot account for other disease management programs that may be implemented. Performance of DTxs in real-world settings is required to further validate their economic benefits. CONCLUSIONS: The DTxs studied may provide substantial cost savings, in part by reducing the use of conventional medications. Clinical inertia may limit the full cost savings of DTxs.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of a Prescription Digital Therapeutic in Type 2 Diabetes.

INTRODUCTION: BT-001 (AspyreRx™) prescription digital therapy, a form of personalized cognitive behavioral therapy, has demonstrated clinically meaningful and durable hemoglobin A1c reductions in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). The current study examined the cost-effectiveness of BT-001 plus standard of care (SoC) versus SoC alone in T2D over a lifetime horizon from a healthcare payer perspective. METHODS: We modeled the T2D pathway using an individual patient-level simulation; clinical data were sourced from the intention-to-treat subset of the BT-001 randomized clinical trial (RCT). SoC across both arms included the composition of oral and injectable treatments for T2D. Events were simulated using the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study Outcomes Model 2 risk equation. A 3-month model cycle length was used in the first year, then annual model cycles were used in line with the original risk engine specifications. Patient characteristics informed event equations and Monte Carlo random sampling was used to assess the occurrence of events within each model cycle. Incidence of hypoglycemic events, drug discontinuation, costs, and health utilities and disutility values were sourced from the literature. RESULTS: From a payer perspective, BT-001 plus SoC versus SoC alone was dominant with a gain in quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) of 0.101 and cost savings of $7343 per patient over the lifetime horizon (i.e., more effective and less costly). BT-001 plus SoC was cost-effective at a willingness-to-pay of $100,000 per QALY (incremental net monetary benefit was $17,443). Savings with BT-001 were primarily driven by a reduction in drug acquisition costs. The reduction in hemoglobin A1c with BT-001 was associated with fewer T2D complications. CONCLUSIONS: BT-001 plus SoC was estimated to dominate SoC alone over the lifetime horizon from a payer perspective, suggesting that using BT-001 can empower patients to better manage their diabetes with the potential for lifelong advantages.

Clinical Events and Renal Function in the First Year Predict Long-Term Kidney Transplant Survival.

Background: Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at 1 year post transplantation has been shown to be a strong predictor of long-term graft survival. However, intercurrent events (ICEs) may affect the relationship between eGFR and failure risk. Methods: The OPTN and USRDS databases on single-organ kidney transplant recipients from 2012 to 2016 were linked. Competing risk regressions estimated adjusted subhazard ratios (SHRs) of 12-month eGFR on long-term graft failure, considering all-cause mortality as the competing risk, for deceased donor (DD) and living donor (LD) recipients. Additional predictors included recipient, donor, and transplant characteristics. ICEs examined were acute rejection, cardiovascular events, and infections. Results: Cohorts comprised 25,131 DD recipients and 7471 LD recipients. SHRs for graft failure increased rapidly as 12-month eGFR values decreased from the reference 60 ml/min per 1.73 m2. At an eGFR of 20 ml/min per 1.73 m2, SHRs were 13-15 for DD recipients and 12-13 for LD recipients; at an eGFR of 30 ml/min per 1.73 m2, SHRs were 5.0-5.7 and 5.0-5.5, respectively. Among first-year ICEs, acute rejection was a significant predictor of long-term graft failure in both DD (SHR=1.63, P<0.001) and LD (SHR=1.51, P=0.006) recipients; cardiovascular events were significant in DD (SHR=1.24, P<0.001), whereas non-CMV infections were significant in the LD cohort (SHR=1.32, P=0.03). Adjustment for ICEs did not significantly reduce the association of eGFR with graft failure. Conclusions: Twelve-month eGFR is a strong predictor of long-term graft failure after accounting for clinical events occurring from discharge to 1 year. These findings may improve patient management and clinical evaluation of novel interventions.

Patient-reported outcomes in hemodialysis vascular access: A call to action.

While access-related dysfunction is a clear driver of clinical outcomes and costs, the full impact of vascular access dysfunction on patient experience and quality of life is not fully characterized in the literature. One way to more comprehensively characterize the patient experience from the patient perspective is through patient reported outcomes (PROs). However, the limited implementation of PROs in clinical trials, patient registries, quality measurement, and other research settings has significantly constrained the patient voice in evaluation of vascular access outcomes and vascular access decision-making. To address these issues, the Kidney Health Initiative, a public-private partnership between the American Society of Nephrology and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, assembled an interdisciplinary workgroup to enhance uptake of access-related PROs with the aims of: (1) reviewing the domains of HRQOL that are affected by vascular access, collect information on existing instruments that measure access-specific HRQOL in hemodialysis, and identify gaps in existing measures; (2) identifying and critically assessing barriers to widespread use of access-specific PRO measures; and (3) defining initiatives to overcome barriers and make recommendations for strategies to improve the use and utility of access-specific PRO measures. A consensus group process identified potential barriers to use of PRO measures in six categories: (1) PRO misperceptions, (2) patient factors, (3) regulators and payers, (4) instrument factors, (5) study design, and (6) physicians. The workgroup provided recommendations for actions to promote the widespread utilization of vascular access-related PRO measures in five categories: (1) development of vascular access-specific PRO measures, (2) ensuring comprehensive assessment when using vascular access PRO measures, (3) ensuring accessibility and applicability of vascular access PRO measures to all end stage kidney disease populations, (4) establishing universal guidelines and accepted vascular access PRO measures, and (5) engaging stakeholders across all facets.

Effect of reimbursement changes on erythropoiesis-stimulating agent utilization and transfusions.

Cancer patients frequently develop chemotherapy-induced anemia, which can be treated with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents. These agents have shifted the standard of chemotherapy-induced anemia treatment away from the previous mainstay of red blood cell transfusions. In July 2007, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services issued a National Coverage Decision restricting reimbursement for erythropoiesis-stimulating agents to those chemotherapy patients who have hemoglobin levels <10 g/dL at initiation of therapy. This decision was hypothesized to place a greater reliance on transfusions for chemotherapy-induced anemia treatment. This observational study examined transfusions and erythropoiesis-stimulating agent utilization rates within defined episodes of chemotherapy care using electronic medical records from seven practices consisting of 39 sites of care across seven states. We compared the frequency of myelosuppressive chemotherapy treatment, erythropoiesis-stimulating agent administrations, and red blood cell transfusions before and after the National Coverage Decision in oncology patients with chemotherapy-induced anemia. Although exposure to myelosuppressive chemotherapy was not different, erythropoiesis-stimulating agent administrations significantly decreased and blood transfusions significantly increased after implementation of the National Coverage Decision. The 31% increase in transfusions for patients aged 65 years and older was significant (P = 0.007) and higher than the 8% increase for patients younger than 65 years (P = 0.358). Changes in practice patterns for chemotherapy-induced anemia treatment that followed the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services reimbursement decision for erythropoiesis-stimulating agents seem to be impacting practice patterns. Further research is necessary to determine whether these changes represent a widespread and durable shift in patient treatment.

Patency of ePTFE Arteriovenous Graft Placements in Hemodialysis Patients: Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis.

Arteriovenous grafts (AVGs) are an appropriate option for vascular access in certain hemodialysis patients. Expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) has become the dominant material for such grafts, due in part to innovations in graft design and surgical interventions to reduce complications and improve patency rates. Comprehensive evidence syntheses have not been conducted to update AVG performance in an era in which both access choice and ePTFE graft functioning may have changed. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis summarizing outcomes from recent studies of ePTFE AVGs in hemodialysis, following PRISMA standards. Literature searches were conducted in multiple databases to identify observational and interventional studies of AVG patency and infection risk. Primary, primary-assisted, and secondary patency rates were analyzed at 6, 12, 18, and 24 months postplacement. Kaplan-Meier graft survival plots were digitized to recreate individual patient-level data. Patency rates were pooled using a random effects model. We identified 32 studies meeting our selection criteria that were published from 2004 through 2019. A total of 38 study arms of ePTFE grafts were included, representing 3381 AVG accesses placed. The mean primary, primary-assisted, and secondary patency rates at 1 year were 41% (95% CI, 35% to 47%), 46% (95% CI, 41% to 51%), and 70% (95% CI, 64% to 75%), respectively. Mean 24-month patency rates were 28% (95% CI, 22% to 33%), 34% (95% CI, 27% to 41%), and 54% (95% CI, 47% to 61%), respectively. A high degree of heterogeneity across studies was observed. Overall risk of infection was not consistently reported, but among available studies the pooled estimate was 9% per patient-year (95% CI, 6% to 12%). This meta-analysis provides an up-to-date estimate of the performance of ePTFE AVGs, within the context of improved graft designs and improved interventional techniques.

Healthcare resource utilization among commercially insured patients with cold agglutinin disease in the United States.

Aims: Cold agglutinin disease (CAD) is a rare subtype of autoimmune hemolytic anemia associated with increased thromboembolism risk and early mortality. Healthcare resource utilization (HRU) in CAD has not been reported. We aimed to compare HRU of patients with CAD with a matched non-CAD cohort in the United States.Materials and methods: Patients with CAD were identified from 2006 to 2016 in the Optum-Humedica database using CAD terms in clinical notes and hematologist review. Patients were required to have Integrated Delivery Network records and ≥6 months' follow-up before and after the first CAD mention date (index date). Patients with CAD were matched to a non-CAD cohort based on demographics. Multivariate analyses assessed inpatient hospitalizations, outpatient visits, emergency room visits, and transfusion use between cohorts 6 months before and 12 months after the index date.Results: Of 814 patients with CAD, 410 met inclusion criteria and were matched to 3,390 patients without CAD. Mean age of patients with CAD was 68.0 years; approximately 62% were female. In the 12 months after the index date, mean inpatient hospitalizations (0.83 vs. 0.25), outpatient visits (17.26 vs. 6.77), emergency room visits (0.55 vs. 0.32), and transfusion days (1.05 vs. 0.05) were higher for patients with CAD than the matched non-CAD cohort (all p < .0001). Similarly, in the 6 months before the index date, patients with CAD had higher HRU than matched patients without CAD for all measures evaluated.Limitations: Results of this study are based on patient information from the Optum-Humedica database, which is limited to commercially insured patients and may not represent the overall CAD population.Conclusions: CAD places a substantial burden on patients and healthcare systems. In addition, the high HRU for patients with CAD observed in the 6 months before diagnosis indicates that disease awareness and better diagnostic practices may be needed.

Toward Patient-Centered Innovation: A Conceptual Framework for Patient-Reported Outcome Measures for Transformative Kidney Replacement Devices.

Individuals with dialysis-dependent kidney failure experience considerable disease- and treatment-related decline in functional status and overall well-being. Despite these experiences, there have been few substantive technological advances in KRT in decades. As such, new federal initiatives seek to accelerate innovation. Historically, integration of patient perspectives into KRT product development has been limited. However, the US Food and Drug Administration recognizes the importance of incorporating patient perspectives into the total product life cycle (i.e., from product conception to postmarket surveillance) and encourages the consideration of patient-reported outcomes in regulatory-focused clinical trials when appropriate. Recognizing the significance of identifying patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) that capture contemporary patient priorities, the Kidney Health Initiative, a public-private partnership between the American Society of Nephrology and US Food and Drug Administration, convened a workgroup to (1) develop a conceptual framework for a health-related quality of life PROM; (2) identify and map existing PROMs to the conceptual framework, prioritizing them on the basis of their supporting evidence for use in the regulatory environment; and (3) describe next steps for identifying PROMs for use in regulatory clinical trials of transformative KRT devices. This paper summarizes the proposed health-related quality-of-life PROM conceptual framework, maps and prioritizes PROMs, and identifies gaps and future needs to advance the development of rigorous, meaningful PROMS for use in clinical trials of transformative KRT devices.

Adherence to guidelines for use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents in patients with chemotherapy-induced anemia: results of a retrospective study of an electronic medical-records database in the United States, 2002-2006.

BACKGROUND: Chemotherapy-induced anemia (CIA) commonly occurs in cancer patients receiving conventional myelosuppressive chemotherapy. Two national guidelines regarding the use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) in CIA were released in 2002. Because of poorer disease outcomes and increased risk of adverse events associated with ESAs in recent studies, the use of ESAs has been increasingly restricted in practice guidelines in the years 2007 and 2008. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to provide a baseline for adherence to national guidelines in the use of ESAs for CIA between 2002 and 2006. METHODS: This retrospective study used the Varian Medical Oncology database (Varian Medical Systems, Inc., Palo Alto, California) of electronic medical records, representing 17 outpatient oncology organizations at 71 clinic locations in the United States. Adults diagnosed with any malignant neoplasm who started conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy between January 1, 2002, and September 30, 2006, were included. The proportion of patients receiving an ESA was calculated by hemoglobin (Hb) level during each chemotherapy cycle, stratified by line of chemotherapy and year. Logistic regression modeling identified predictors of ESA use in anemic patients during the first chemotherapy cycle. RESULTS: The records of 17,731 cancer patients were evaluated. Median (SD) age was 61 (13) years, and 58.9% were female. Most patients (84.1%) had a solid tumor. Many patients (41.3%) received platinum containing chemotherapy and 74.4% received combination chemotherapy. During the first 5 cycles of first-line chemotherapy among patients with CIA (Hb <11 g/dL), ESAs were used by 55.8% of patients at cycle 1 and 68.9% at cycle 5. ESA use in CIA patients increased across lines of chemotherapy and time. Few patients (2.8%) received an ESA at Hb >13 g/dL. The statistically significant predictors of ESA use included age >65 years, eastern US residence, private health insurance, community-based care, and solid tumors, especially lung cancer. CONCLUSION: The patterns we observed were generally consistent with prevailing ESA labels and national guidelines during 2002 through 2006. Although ESA use in patients with CIA increased over chemotherapy cycles, lines of chemotherapy, and time, <70% of CIA episodes were treated with ESAs during the initial 5 chemotherapy cycles.

Use of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents among chemotherapy patients with hemoglobin exceeding 12 grams per deciliter.

BACKGROUND: Prior to 2007, the erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) epoetin alfa and darbepoetin alfa were indicated for use in chemotherapyinduced anemia to achieve target hemoglobin (Hb) levels of approximately 12 grams per deciliter (gm per dL), and treatment was to be withheld if Hb exceeded 13 gm per dL. In March 2007, the FDA changed the labeling of the ESAs to add boxed warnings, updated in November 2007, to include the following key points: (a) ESAs should be used only to treat anemia that occurs in patients with cancer while they are undergoing chemotherapy; (b) treatment with ESAs should be stopped when chemotherapy ends; and (c) dosing ESAs to an Hb target of 12 gm per dL or greater has resulted in more rapid cancer progression or shortened overall survival in patients with breast, head and neck, lymphoid, cervical, and non-small cell lung malignancies. In January 2008, the FDA specified that the increased risk of more rapid tumor growth or shortened survival was associated with ESAs when "administered in an attempt to achieve a Hb level of 12 gm per dL or greater, although many patients did not reach that level." A new black-box warning regarding this association was added to the labels of the ESAs in March 2008, and the FDA mandated further label changes on July 30, 2008, that ESA therapy should not be initiated in patients receiving chemotherapy at Hb levels of 10 gm per dL or higher. OBJECTIVE: To (a) assess the prevalence and predictors of ESA administrations at Hb levels above 12 gm per dL among patients with a diagnosis of solid or hematologic cancer or myelodysplastic syndrome who began their first regimen of conventional myelosuppressive chemotherapy between 2002 and 2006, and (b) describe patterns of ESA treatment subsequent to the first ESA administration at Hb above 12 gm per dL. METHODS: Using the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)-compliant Varian Medical Oncology database of de-identified electronic medical records from 17 U.S. outpatient oncology practices, adults (aged 18 years or older) with any cancer diagnosis who began chemotherapy between January 1, 2002, and September 30, 2006, were identified. The Hb value associated with each ESA administration was defined as the closest Hb measurement within 7 days prior to the ESA administration. A first ESAHb > 12 was defined as the first time an ESA, either epoetin or darbepoetin, was given with an associated Hb greater than 12 gm per dL during the first chemotherapy regimen recorded in the database for each patient. Hb levels and ESA administrations after the first ESAHb > 12 were determined. Logistic regression models identified predictors of initial receipt of an ESAHb > 12, and of receiving further ESA treatment following the first such administration. RESULTS: Between January 1, 2002, and September 30, 2006, there were 17,731 patients on chemotherapy, the mean (SD) age was 60 (13.2) years; 58.9% were female; 24.6% had breast cancer, 22.2% had lung cancer, 15.8% had colorectal cancer, 11.8% had hematologic cancer, and 25.6% had other or multiple cancers. Of these, 8,086 (45.6%) received an ESA at any time during the regimen, and 7,606 (42.9%) received an ESA at a known Hb level (i.e., Hb measurement within 7 days prior to ESA administration). During the first recorded chemotherapy regimen, 1,844 patients (10.4% of the chemotherapy cohort, 24.2% of ESA users with a known Hb; n = 1,226 epoetin, n = 618 darbepoetin) received an ESAHb > 12. Among patients receiving ESA treatment at a known Hb level, significant predictors of receiving an ESAHb > 12 included treatment in a community-based clinic rather than a hospital-affiliated clinic (odds ratio [OR] = 2.96, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.40-3.65), location of practice in the eastern United States (OR for Midwest = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.57- 0.78; OR for West = 0.27, 95% CI = 0.22-0.34), hematologic cancer rather than solid tumor (OR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.21-1.71), private health insurance (OR for public health insurance = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.70-0.93; OR for other/ unknown insurance = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.47-0.62), and year of regimen 2002- 2003 (ORs = 0.75, 0.74, and 0.71 for 2004, 2005, and 2006, respectively). Following the first ESAHb > 12, 276 (22.5%) of the patients on epoetin and 276 (44.7%) on darbepoetin received no further ESA treatment during the next 6 weeks (Pearson chi-square = 96.1, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This analysis of outpatient oncology practices between 2002 and 2006 revealed that 24% of ESA users with a known Hb level received ESAHb > 12. Dose withholding subsequently occurred in 23%- 45% of those patients. A higher proportion of patients on epoetin than darbepoetin continued ESA treatment after the first administration of ESAHb > 12.

Scoring system and clinical application of COPD diagnostic questionnaires.

OBJECTIVES: In most primary care settings, spirometric screening of all patients at risk is not practical. In prior work, we developed questionnaires to help identify COPD in two risk groups: (1) persons with a positive smoking history but no history of obstructive lung disease (case finding), and (2) patients with prior evidence of obstructive lung disease (differential diagnosis). For these questionnaires, we now present a scoring system for use in primary care. METHODS: Scores for individual questions were based on the regression coefficients from logistic regression models using a spirometry-based diagnosis of obstruction as the reference outcome. Receiver operator characteristic analysis was used to determine performance characteristics for each questionnaire. Several simplified scoring systems were developed and tested. RESULTS: For both scenarios, we created a scoring system with two cut points intended to place subjects within one of three zones: persons with a high likelihood of having obstruction (high predictive value of a positive test result); persons with a low likelihood of obstruction (high predictive value of a negative test result); and an intermediate zone. Using these scoring systems, we achieved sensitivities of 54 to 82%, specificities of 58 to 88%, positive predictive values of 30 to 78%, and negative predictive values of 71 to 93%. CONCLUSIONS: These questionnaires can be used to help identify persons likely to have COPD among specific risk groups. The use of a simplified scoring system makes these tools beneficial in the primary care setting. Used in conjunction with spirometry, these tools can help improve the efficiency and accuracy of COPD diagnosis in primary care.

Quality of care and its impact on population health: a cross-sectional study from Macedonia.

Research has revealed significant variation in both the quality of clinical care and the health status of populations. We conducted a study to determine if variations in the quality of clinical care can be quantitatively linked to variations in health status, at the patient and the population level. This study, conducted at health facilities in four municipalities in Macedonia, collected cross-sectional data on (1) structural measures (such as infrastructure, facilities, equipment and costs) and the quality of clinical care provided by physicians (as measured by clinical vignettes); (2) detailed health and socioeconomic status information on patients using the facilities; and (3) nearly the same information on a random sample of adults in each municipality. Data were collected from a total of 57 facilities, 273 physicians, 1451 patients, and 1627 adults from the general population. The main outcome measure was health status, based on self-reported health surveys. Objective health measures were obtained to control for preexisting conditions. The main explanatory variable was quality of clinical care, based on physicians' clinical vignette scores. Structural measures were included in our model but had a more distal relationship to health status. We found that quality of care strongly predicted self-reported health status of patients using the facilities even after controlling for other factors (p < .05). Quality of care was also associated with higher health status for the population living in the surrounding community, regardless of utilization (p < .05). This linkage between quality of clinical care and health suggests that policies that improve clinical practice have the potential to improve population health more rapidly than other interventions.

Validation of a patient satisfaction questionnaire for anemia treatment, the PSQ-An.

BACKGROUND: Treating anemia associated with chemotherapy and many cancers is often necessary. However, patient satisfaction with anemia treatment is limited by the lack of validated instruments. We developed and validated a new treatment-specific patient satisfaction instrument: the Patient Satisfaction Questionnaire for Anemia Treatment (PSQ-An). Treatment burden and overall satisfaction scales were designed for ease of use in clinical practice. METHODS: 312 cancer patients (141 breast, 69 gynecological, and 102 non-small cell lung) were targeted to complete the PSQ-An at 4 week intervals. Data from weeks 5 and 9 were analyzed. Patients also completed the MOS SF-36 Global Health assessment and questions concerning resources devoted to anemia treatment. Item reduction used endorsement rates, floor/ceiling effects, and item-item correlations. Factor analysis identified meaningful subscales. Test-retest reliability was assessed. Construct validity was tested, using Pearson's correlations, by comparing subscale scores to Global Health, hemoglobin levels, and resources devoted to anemia treatment. RESULTS: The overall response rate was 92.9% (264/284) at week 5. Most (84.2%) of the patients were female, and the mean (SD) age was 60.2 (+/- 11.8) years. Two distinct subscales were identified measuring treatment burden (7 items) and overall satisfaction (2 items). Test-retest reliability was examined (ICC: 0.45-0.67); both were internally consistent (alpha = 0.83). Both subscales exhibited convergent and divergent validity with independent measures of health. ANOVA results indicated that the PSQ-An Satisfaction subscale discriminated between 5 levels of MOS SF-36 Global Health (P = 0.006). CONCLUSION: The PSQ-An is a validated, treatment-specific instrument for measuring satisfaction with anemia treatment for cancer patients. PSQ-An subscales reflect the burden of injection anemia treatment on cancer patients and their assessment of the overall treatment value.

Patient-level costs of major cardiovascular conditions: a review of the international literature.

OBJECTIVE: Robust cost estimates of cardiovascular (CV) events are required for assessing health care interventions aimed at reducing the economic burden of major adverse CV events. This review synthesizes international cost estimates of CV events. METHODS: MEDLINE database was searched electronically for English language studies published during 2007-2012, with cost estimates for CV events of interest - unstable angina, myocardial infarction, heart failure, stroke, and CV revascularization. Included studies provided at least one estimate of patient-level direct costs in adults for any identified country. Information on study characteristics and cost estimates were collected. All costs were adjusted for inflation to 2013 values. RESULTS: Across the 114 studies included, the average cost was US $6,466 for unstable angina, $11,664 for acute myocardial infarction, $11,686 for acute heart failure, $11,635 for acute ischemic stroke, $37,611 for coronary artery bypass graft, and $13,501 for percutaneous coronary intervention. The ranges for cost estimates varied widely across countries with US cost estimate being at least twice as high as European Union costs for some conditions. Few studies were found on populations outside the US and European Union. CONCLUSION: This review showed wide variation in the cost of CV events within and across countries, while showcasing the continuing economic burden of CV disease. The variability in costs was primarily attributable to differences in study population, costing methodologies, and reporting differences. Reliable cost estimates for assessing economic value of interventions in CV disease are needed.