RETROSPECTIVE HEMATOLOGY AND SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY OF RING-TAILED LEMURS (LEMUR CATTA) ON ST. CATHERINES ISLAND, GEORGIA, USA.

Annual health records were retrospectively analyzed for a colony of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) inhabiting St. Catherines Island, Georgia, USA to establish baseline hematological and serum biochemical parameters and determine sex- and age-related differences. Summarized complete blood count and serum biochemistry panel results are presented for 85 blood samples collected from 54 lemurs at annual health exams during 1998-2003. Within each of four age classes (infant, <1 yr; juvenile, 1-5 yr; adult, ≥ 6 yr), data were stratified and summarized based on sex. Lemur age was a significant positive predictor of mean corpuscular hemoglobin; absolute concentrations of neutrophils, monocytes, and band cells; serum concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, globulins, lipase, and total protein; and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activity. Lemur age was a significant negative predictor of albumin:globulins ratio; alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity; and serum concentrations of calcium, cholesterol, glucose, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and triglycerides. Neutrophil proportions increased with aging and lymphocyte proportions decreased with aging, particularly in females. Recent steep population declines of wild ring-tailed lemurs make their successful husbandry and medical care an increasingly pressing concern. These biomedical data will aid in clinical diagnosis and treatment of lemurs in human care, and support conservation efforts for this species.

AUTOLOGOUS OR ALLOGENIC BLOOD PLEURODESIS AS TREATMENT FOR PNEUMOCOELOM IN FOUR SEA TURTLES (LEPIDOCHELYS KEMPII, CARETTA CARETTA).

Pneumocoelom secondary to primary pulmonary disease was diagnosed via CT (three cases) or radiographs and coelioscopy (one case) in one Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) and three loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles. All cases were suspected to be caused by trauma to the lung, and all exhibited positive buoyancy disorders. Coelomocentesis alone was ineffective at resolving each pneumocoelom, suggesting a large and persistent tear in the pulmonary parenchyma. An autologous (in three cases) or allogenic (in one case) blood patch pleurodesis was performed. The pneumocoelom was resolved in all four cases with no noted postoperative complications. Follow-up diagnostic imaging confirmed resolution of the pneumocoelom in three cases, and all four patients were successfully rehabilitated and had normal buoyancy at the time of release. One rehabilitated loggerhead was satellite tagged, and the tracking data demonstrated that the animal was still alive and moving normally 126 d postrelease, when the tag stopped transmitting. In sea turtles, an autologous or allogenic blood patch pleurodesis can be safely performed in cases of persistent pneumocoelom secondary to traumatic primary pulmonary disease.

Health and nutrition of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in the southeastern United States.

Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) are opportunistic carnivores that feed primarily on benthic invertebrates and fish. Sea turtle rehabilitation requires provision of a species-specific, balanced diet that supplies nutrition similar to that of a wild diet; this can be challenging because free-ranging loggerheads' diets vary depending on their life stage and geographic location, with predominant prey species dictated by local availability. The goal of this study was to better understand the nutritional needs of subadult and adult loggerheads in rehabilitation. This was accomplished by conducting a retrospective survey of stomach contents identified during gross necropsy of 153 deceased loggerheads that stranded in coastal Georgia, USA. A total of 288 different forage items were identified; the most frequently observed prey items belong to the subphylum Crustacea (N = 131), followed by bony fish (Osteichthyes; N = 45), gastropod mollusks (N = 40), bivalve mollusks (N = 23), and Atlantic horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus; N = 15). The proportions of certain prey items differed significantly with turtle size; adult turtles ate proportionately more gastropods (p = 0.001), and subadults ate proportionately more fish (p = 0.01). Stomach contents information was used to determine common local prey items (blue crab, cannonball jellyfish, horseshoe crab, whelk), which were evaluated for nutritional content. Additionally, we compared hematology and plasma biochemistry profiles (including proteins, trace minerals, and vitamins) between four cohorts of loggerhead turtles, including free-ranging subadults and adults, nesting females, and loggerheads undergoing rehabilitation. This information was applied to inform a regionally specific, formulated diet for tube feeding, and a supplement containing vitamins and minerals for captive loggerheads, to more closely approximate the nutritional content of their natural diet. Assessing the regional and temporal variability in loggerhead diets is an important component in their effective conservation because resultant data can be used to help understand the impacts of environmental perturbations on benthic food webs.

PULMONARY AND COELOMIC MYCOSES DUE TO METARHIZIUM AND BEAUVERIA SPECIES IN REPTILES.

This report documents cases of fatal pulmonary mycosis caused by entomopathogenic fungi in the genera Metarhizium and Beauveria (Order Hypocreales) in a loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta), a Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis), two gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus), a Cuvier's dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus palpebrosus), a false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii), a green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), and a Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii), and a case of granulomatous coelomitis in a hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). Fungi identified in these cases included Beauveria bassiana, Beauveria brongniartii, Metarhizium anisopliae, Metarhizium robertsii, and one case of infection by a novel Metarhizium species. The animals were either housed at zoos or brought into rehabilitation from the wild. Although the majority of animals had comorbidities, the fungal infections were believed to be the primary cause of death. Fungal susceptibility testing was performed on two Beauveria spp. isolates, and revealed lower minimum inhibitory concentrations for itraconazole and voriconazole when compared to terbinafine and fluconazole. This case series demonstrates that a variety of reptile species from different orders are vulnerable to infection with Metarhizium, and multiple species of sea turtle are susceptible to infection with Beauveria.

BIOMEDICAL EVALUATION OF THE GOLDEN-CROWNED SIFAKA (PROPITHECUS TATTERSALLI) IN DARAINA, MADAGASCAR.

Complete medical examinations were performed on 25 wild golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli) from northeastern Madagascar. Each animal received a complete physical examination and weight, body temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate were documented. Blood samples were collected for packed cell volume, estimated total white blood cell count, serum biochemical profile, fat-soluble vitamin analysis, trace mineral analysis, and Toxoplasma gondii serology. All animals examined were adults and determined to be in good health and body condition. No ectoparasites were observed. Fecal samples were collected for endoparasite examination and bacterial culture; while no endoparasites were observed, fecal samples from two females cultured positive for Bacillus cereus. One male lemur had a positive antibody titer to Toxoplasma gondii immunoglobulin G. These baseline health data provide an important foundation for continued monitoring of this critically endangered species.

PHARMACOKINETIC BEHAVIOR OF MELOXICAM IN LOGGERHEAD (CARETTA CARETTA), KEMP'S RIDLEY (LEPIDOCHELYS KEMPII), AND GREEN (CHELONIA MYDAS) SEA TURTLES AFTER SUBCUTANEOUS ADMINISTRATION.

The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of a single dose of meloxicam administered subcutaneously (SQ) to three species of sea turtles: loggerheads (Caretta caretta), Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), and greens (Chelonia mydas). A dose of 1 mg/kg was given to the Kemp's ridleys and greens, whereas the loggerheads received 2 mg/kg. After SQ administration, the half-life (t1/2) of meloxicam administered at 1 mg/kg in the Kemp's ridleys was 5.51 hr but could not be determined in the greens. The half-life of meloxicam administered at 2 mg/kg in the loggerheads was 2.99 hr. The maximum concentration (Cmax) for meloxicam after SQ administration at 1 mg/kg in the Kemp's ridleys was 6.76 µg/ml and in the greens was 9.35 µg/ml. The Cmax in loggerheads for meloxicam after SQ administration at 2 mg/kg was 3.63 µg/mL. Meloxicam administered SQ at a dose of 1 mg/kg to the Kemp's ridley and greens provided measurable plasma concentrations of meloxicam for 48 and 120 hr, respectively, with no adverse side effects. In loggerheads, meloxicam administered SQ at a dose of 2 mg/kg provided measurable plasma levels of meloxicam for only 24 hr. Plasma levels of meloxicam of greater than 0.5 µg/ml are considered to be therapeutic in humans. Results suggested that administration of meloxicam SQ at 1 mg/kg in Kemp's ridleys and greens would result in plasma concentrations greater than 0.5 µg/ml for 12 and 120 hr, respectively. The administration of 2 mg/kg meloxicam to loggerhead turtles resulted in plasma concentrations greater than 0.5 µg/ml for only 4 hr.

Tumor re-growth, case outcome, and tumor scoring systems in rehabilitated green turtles with fibropapillomatosis.

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is an infectious, neoplastic disease of major concern in sea turtle rehabilitation facilities. Rehabilitating sea turtles that undergo tumor removal surgery often have tumor regrowth and may experience mortality. We evaluated tumor score, removal, and regrowth in rehabilitating green sea turtles with FP in 4 rehabilitation facilities in the southeastern USA during 2009-2017. Of 756 cases, 312 (41%) underwent tumor removal surgery, 155 (50%) of those had tumor regrowth within an average of 46 ± 45 d, and 85 (27%) had multiple (>1) regrowth events. Of 756 turtles with FP, 563 (75%) did not survive after admission into a rehabilitation facility, including 283 (37%) that were euthanized and 280 that died without euthanasia (37%), and 193 survived, including 186 (25%) released and 7 (1%) placed in permanent captive care. Tumor removal surgery increased the odds of tumor regrowth but also enhanced survivorship, whereas tumor regrowth was not a significant predictor of case outcome. Three FP tumor scoring systems were used to assign tumor scores to 449 cases, and differing results emphasize that tumor scoring systems should be applied to the situations and/or location(s) for which they were intended. FP tumor score was not a significant predictor for the event or extent of FP tumor regrowth after surgical excision. Under current rehabilitation regimes, outcomes of rehabilitation for tumored turtles have a low probability of success. The results of this study may be used to help guide clinical decision-making and determine prognoses for rehabilitating sea turtles with FP.

ADVANCING TRANSFUSION MEDICINE IN SEA TURTLES: OPTIMIZATION OF A CROSS-MATCHING PROTOCOL.

Whole blood transfusions are an essential treatment modality during rehabilitation of stranded sea turtles, however, standardized protocols for transfusions are not available in reptile medicine. The objective of this study was to optimize a cross-matching protocol for sea turtle blood transfusions. Fresh venous blood samples from 15 turtles (n = 14 green turtles, Chelonia mydas [Cm]; n = 1 loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta [Cc]) were tested using a temperature-appropriate (i.e., reflecting body temperature), time-sensitive protocol in 26 reactions using two procedures for cross-match evaluation at 30 and 60 min at ambient air and water bath temperature. There were no significant differences between both protocols at 30- and 60-min incubation times or between microscopic evaluations at 2 or 5 min. The major cross-match identified 7/22 incompatible Cm-Cm reactions as observed by microscopic erythrocyte agglutination. Minor cross-matches resulted in 6/22 incompatible Cm-Cm reactions. About half of all Cm-Cm reactions (12/22) were compatible by major and minor cross-match. All Cc-Cm reactions (4/4) were incompatible. A higher than expected proportion of incompatible Cm cross-matching reactions suggests preexisting antibodies to nonself erythrocyte antigens in this species, or other factors promoting erythrocyte aggregation or agglutination. Preliminary data across Cm and Cc suggests cross-species incompatibility. These results indicate that sea turtles may react to donor erythrocytes even at the first transfusion. Concurrent major and minor cross-matching using the proposed protocol at 30-min incubation at room temperature should be considered a necessary and effective way to test for patient and donor incompatibilities in sea turtles.

COMPARISON OF HEMATOLOGICAL, PLASMA BIOCHEMICAL, AND NUTRITIONAL ANALYTES OF REHABILITATING AND APPARENTLY HEALTHY FREE-RANGING ATLANTIC GREEN TURTLES (CHELONIA MYDAS).

Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) are unique because hatchlings and pelagic juveniles are carnivorous, whereas later life stages become primarily herbivorous. Although this dietary shift is well understood, nutritional requirements at each developmental stage are not. Diet selection during rehabilitation is challenging, because turtles are often fed high-protein, low-fiber diets to counteract poor appetite and emaciation, which can result in gastrointestinal disorders. The objective of this study was to analyze hematology, plasma biochemistry, and nutritional analytes to determine the effect of diet on rehabilitating green turtle health and recovery. Turtles in rehabilitation at the Georgia Sea Turtle Center (GSTC) on Jekyll Island, Georgia (n = 21) were sampled at admission, mid-rehabilitation, and recovery. Duration of rehabilitation ranged from 48 to 233 days (mean = 117) and included a shift from a mixed seafood-vegetable diet at admission to a primarily herbivorous diet at recovery. For comparison, free-ranging turtles captured during an ongoing monitoring project in St. Lucie County, Florida (n = 34) were evaluated for the same variables. Several analytes improved during rehabilitation, including total protein, uric acid, potassium, and vitamins A and E. Others were significantly different, including higher cholesterol and triglycerides, but lower calcium, vitamin D, and magnesium in recovery compared with freeranging turtles. These variations illustrate the benefits of appropriate supportive care during rehabilitation as well as the importance of a species-specific diet for green turtles, and may facilitate formulation of nutritionally complete gel diets for this species under human care.

BASELINE CORTICOSTERONE, HEMATOLOGY, AND BIOCHEMISTRY RESULTS AND CORRELATIONS TO REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN NESTING LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLES ( CARETTA CARETTA).

Characterizing the health status and reproductive success of wild populations of sea turtles can be difficult; however, obtaining data to do this can provide important insight into the stability and long-term success of a population. This study examined the use of baseline corticosterone to assess reproductive success of a population of nesting loggerhead sea turtles ( Caretta caretta) on Jekyll Island, Georgia and investigated hematological and biochemical trends in this population. A total of 37 nesting loggerhead sea turtles was sampled for this study. Eleven (29.7%) turtles were sampled in 2013 and 26 (70.3%) were sampled in 2014. A majority of the turtles sampled successfully nested (29/37, 78.4%; false crawls: 8/37, 21.6%). There was no significant correlation between baseline corticosterone concentrations and reproductive success (hatch success or emergence success) in this population. There was a significant positive correlation ( r = 0.461, P = 0.02) between corticosterone concentrations and absolute monocyte counts. There was a significant negative correlation between monocyte count and hatch success ( r = -0.464, P = 0.05) and a positive correlation between phosphorus and hatch success ( r = 0.405, P = 0.05). Calcium concentrations were significantly different ( P = 0.01) between animals that false crawled and those that nested, with nesting turtles having lower calcium concentrations than those that false crawled. Turtles that false crawled were significantly ( P = 0.008) more likely to have elevated potassium concentrations than turtles that nested. This study provides the first attempt at characterizing baseline corticosterone, hematology, and biochemistry data and correlations with reproductive success in nesting loggerhead sea turtles. Overall, loggerhead sea turtles capable of nesting were found to be in good health and have good reproductive success while maintaining low levels of corticosterone during reproductive activities.

Potential Noncutaneous Sites of Chelonid Herpesvirus 5 Persistence and Shedding in Green Sea Turtles Chelonia mydas.

Chelonid herpesvirus 5 (ChHV5), the likely etiologic agent of sea turtle fibropapillomatosis (FP), is predicted to be unevenly distributed within an infected turtle, in which productive virus replication and virion shedding occurs in cutaneous tumor keratinocytes. In this study, we measured and compared ChHV5 DNA quantities in tumors, skin, urine, major organs, and nervous tissue samples from green turtles Chelonia mydas. These samples were taken from the carcasses of 10 juvenile green turtles with and without clinical signs of FP that stranded in Florida during 2014. Quantitative PCR for ChHV5 UL30 was used to identify ChHV5 DNA in tumors, skin, heart, kidney, nerves, and urine sampled from five out of five FP-positive and three out of five FP-free turtles. The most frequently co-occurring sites were cutaneous tumor and kidney (n = 4). Novel data presented here include the identification of ChHV5 DNA in kidney, heart, and nerve samples from three FP-free turtles. These data support candidate nontumored anatomic sites of ChHV5 DNA localization and mobilization during two different disease states that may be involved in the ChHV5 infection cycle. Received September 8, 2016; accepted April 17, 2017.

HEALTH AND NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT OF FREE-RANGING EASTERN INDIGO SNAKES (DRYMARCHON COUPERI) IN GEORGIA, UNITED STATES.

Clinical pathology and nutritional parameters are useful in evaluating and monitoring threatened and endangered wildlife populations, but reference ranges for most snake species are lacking. From 2001 to 2005, health assessments were performed on 58 eastern indigo snakes (EIS) (Drymarchon couperi) captured in the wild in southeastern Georgia, United States. Health and nutritional assessments performed included hematology, serum biochemistry, fat-soluble vitamins, heavy metals, pesticide contaminants, parasitology, and surveys of other pathogens. Significant differences in total solids, packed cell volume, glucose, blood urea nitrogen, albumin : globulin ratio, amylase, triglycerides, and bile acids between males and females were observed. Additionally, there was a significant difference between liver and kidney concentrations for vitamins A and E. As previously noted in captive EIS, total Ca was elevated in comparison to concentrations reported in other snake species. Parasitism was a common finding in sampled EIS, but the overall health status of this free-ranging population appeared good. A winter-time dermatitis was found in most snakes, which resolved in the summer months. This study represents the first health and nutritional assessment of free-ranging EIS, and provides needed data to guide monitoring and conservation efforts.

Case descriptions of fibropapillomatosis in rehabilitating loggerhead sea turtles Caretta caretta in the southeastern USA.

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a debilitating neoplastic disease that affects all species of hard-shelled sea turtles, including loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta. FP can represent an important clinical concern in rehabilitating turtles, since managing these infectious lesions often requires special husbandry provisions including quarantine, and FP may affect clinical progression, extend rehabilitation duration, and complicate prognoses. Here we describe cases of rehabilitating loggerhead turtles with FP (designated FP+). Medical records of FP+ loggerhead cases from 3 sea turtle rehabilitation facilities in the southeastern USA were reviewed. Between 2001 and 2014, FP was observed in 8 of 818 rehabilitating loggerhead turtles (0.98% overall prevalence in admitted patients). FP+ loggerhead size classes represented were large juvenile (straight carapace length, SCL: 58.1-80 cm; n=7) and adult (SCL>87 cm; n=1). Three turtles presented with FP, and 5 developed tumors during rehabilitation within a range of 45 to 319 d. Sites of new tumor growth included the eyes, sites of trauma, neck, and glottis. FP+ turtles were scored as mildly (3/8), moderately (4/8), or heavily (1/8) afflicted. The mean total time in rehabilitation was 476±355 d (SD) (range: 52-1159 d). Six turtles were released without visible evidence of FP, 1 turtle was released with mild FP, and 1 turtle with internal FP was euthanized. Clinical decision-making for FP+ loggerhead patients can be aided by such information as time to tumor development, anatomic locations to monitor for new tumor growth, husbandry considerations, diagnostic and treatment options, and comparisons to FP in rehabilitating green turtles Chelonia mydas.

PHARMACOKINETICS OF TRAMADOL AND O-DESMETHYLTRAMADOL IN LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLES (CARETTA CARETTA).

The objective of this study was to determine the pharmacokinetics of two orally administered doses of tramadol (5 and 10 mg/kg) and its major metabolite (O-desmethyltramadol) (M1) in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). After oral administration, the half-life of tramadol administered at 5 and 10 mg/kg was 20.35 and 22.67 hr, whereas the half-life of M1 was 10.23 and 11.26 hr, respectively. The maximum concentration (Cmax) for tramadol after oral administration at 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg was 373 and 719 ng/ml, whereas that of M1 was 655 and 1,376 ng/ml, respectively. Tramadol administered orally to loggerhead sea turtles at both dosages provided measurable plasma concentrations of tramadol and O-desmethyltramadol for several days with no adverse effects. Plasma concentrations of tramadol and O-desmethyltramadol remained ≥100 ng/ml for at least 48 and 72 hr when tramadol was administered at 10 mg/kg.

Factors influencing survivorship of rehabilitating green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) with fibropapillomatosis.

Marine turtle fibropapillomatosis (FP) is a debilitating, infectious neoplastic disease that has reached epizootic proportions in several tropical and subtropical populations of green turtles (Chelonia mydas). FP represents an important health concern in sea turtle rehabilitation facilities. The objectives of this study were to describe the observed epidemiology, biology, and survival rates of turtles affected by FP (FP+ turtles) in a rehabilitation environment; to evaluate clinical parameters as predictors of survival in affected rehabilitating turtles; and to provide information about case progression scenarios and potential outcomes for FP+ sea turtle patients. A retrospective case series analysis was performed using the medical records of the Georgia Sea Turtle Center (GSTC), Jekyll Island, Georgia, USA, during 2009-2013. Information evaluated included signalment, morphometrics, presenting complaint, time to FP onset, tumor score (0-3), co-morbid conditions, diagnostic test results, therapeutic interventions, and case outcomes. Overall, FP was present in 27/362 (7.5%) of all sea turtles admitted to the GSTC for rehabilitation, either upon admittance or during their rehabilitation. Of these, 25 were green and 2 were Kemp's ridley turtles. Of 10 turtles that had only plaque-like FP lesions, 60% had natural tumor regression, all were released, and they were significantly more likely to survive than those with classic FP (P = 0.02 [0.27-0.75, 95% CI]). Turtles without ocular FP were eight times more likely to survive than those with ocular FP (odds ratio = 8.75, P = 0.032 [1.21-63.43, 95% CI]). Laser-mediated tumor removal surgery is the treatment of choice for FP+ patients at the GSTC; number of surgeries was not significantly related to case outcome.

Health assessments of brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) nestlings from colonies in South Carolina and Georgia, U.S.A.

Health evaluations of brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) nestlings from three colonies along the Atlantic coast of the southeastern United States were performed in 2005, 2007, and 2008. The primary objective of this study was to establish baseline data for hematologic, biochemical, and serologic values from a relatively healthy population of free-living pelicans during early chick development. Relationships among health variables and colony site, ectoparasite infestation, sex, and body condition index were also evaluated. Reference intervals are presented for health variables, including novel analytes for the species, as well as a comparison of these results with previously published values for wild pelicans. No significant relationships were found between health variables and nestling sex or body condition; however, differences between colony sites and the presence of ectoparasites were detected. The inclusion of health assessments as a regular component of management programs for seabirds can provide data to better understand the effect to species of concern when drastic changes occur to the population and its environment.

Circulating Fat-Soluble Vitamin Concentrations and Nutrient Composition of Aquatic Prey Eaten by American Oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus palliatus) in the Southeastern United States.

The American oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus palliatus) is currently listed as a species of high concern by the United States Shorebird Conservation Plan. Because nutritional status directly impacts overall health and reproduction of individuals and populations, adequate management of a wildlife population requires intimate knowledge of a species' diet and nutrient requirements. Fat-soluble vitamin concentrations in blood plasma obtained from American oystercatchers and proximate, vitamin, and mineral composition of various oystercatcher prey species were determined as baseline data to assess nutritional status and nutrient supply. Bird and prey species samples were collected from the Cape Romain region, South Carolina, USA, and the Altamaha River delta islands, Georgia, USA, where breeding populations appear relatively stable in recent years. Vitamin A levels in blood samples were higher than ranges reported as normal for domestic avian species, and vitamin D concentrations were lower than anticipated based on values observed in poultry. Vitamin E levels were within ranges previously reported for avian groups with broadly similar feeding niches such as herons, gulls, and terns (eg, aquatic/estuarine/marine). Prey species (oysters, mussels, clams, blood arks [Anadara ovalis], whelks [ Busycon carica ], false angel wings [ Petricola pholadiformis ]) were similar in water content to vertebrate prey, moderate to high in protein, and moderate to low in crude fat. Ash and macronutrient concentrations in prey species were high compared with requirements of carnivores or avian species. Prey items analyzed appear to meet nutritional requirements for oystercatchers, as estimated by extrapolation from domestic carnivores and poultry species; excesses, imbalances, and toxicities-particularly of minerals and fat-soluble vitamins-may warrant further investigation.

Intestinal parasites of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) from eight populations in Georgia.

The gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), one of five tortoise species endemic in the USA, was recently classified as a candidate for federal listing as a threatened species. Fecal samples collected from 117 tortoises from eight sites in Georgia were examined for endoparasites using a combination of sedimentation and flotation. Samples from an island population were examined for parasitic oocysts and ova only by flotation, protozoan cysts by trichrome-stained direct smear, and Cryptosporidium by direct immunofluorescence assay and ProSpecT rapid assay. A total of 99 tortoises (85, range 0-100%) was infected with pinworms (Alaeuris spp.), 47 (40, 0-86%) with cestodes (Oochorstica sp.), 34 (41, 0-74%) with Chapiniella spp., 2 (3, 0-33%) with Eimeria paynei, and a single tortoise each with a capillarid and ascarid (1%). On the island, Entamoeba was detected in one tortoise (2%) while Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in eight (17%). In conclusion, at least eight species of parasites were detected including Cryptosporidium, a possible pathogen of tortoises. Interestingly, we detected spatial variation in the distribution of several parasites among populations suggesting additional work should be conducted across a gradient of tortoise densities, land use, and habitat characteristics.

Salmonella enterica prevalence in leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in St. Kitts, West Indies.

Salmonella spp. are gram-negative bacteria capable of causing diseases in a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial animals, including humans. Sea and terrestrial turtles have been recognized as carriers of this zoonotic pathogen. In this project, conventional and molecular diagnostic methods were combined to investigate the prevalence of Salmonella enterica in leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) that used the island of St. Kitts, West Indies as a nesting ground during 2011 (n = 21). Isolates obtained from selective media were screened and colonies suspected of being Salmonella spp. were confirmed by fluorescence resonance energy transfer polymerase chain reaction. The prevalence of S. enterica within this sample population during this period was found to be 14.2%. Moreover, due to the increasing risk of antibiotic resistance in enteric bacteria, antimicrobial susceptibility was investigated in all recovered Salmonella spp. isolates utilizing the broth microdilution method. All isolates were susceptible to the lowest concentration of kanamycin, gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, nalidixic acid, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole tested. Further research should be pursued to understand the interaction of this bacterial pathogen with the environment, host, and other microbial communities, and to further develop faster, more sensitive, and more specific diagnostic methods.

Intestinal and cloacal strictures in free-ranging and aquarium-maintained green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas).

Intestinal or cloacal strictures that resulted in intestinal obstruction were diagnosed in six green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) from three rehabilitation facilities and two zoologic parks. The etiologies of the strictures were unknown in these cases. It is likely that anatomic adaptations of the gastrointestinal tract unique to the green sea turtle's herbivorous diet, paired with causes of reduced intestinal motility, may predispose the species to intestinal damage and subsequent obstructive intestinal disease. In aquarium-maintained green sea turtles, obesity, diet, reduced physical activity, chronic intestinal disease, and inappropriate or inadequate antibiotics might also be potential contributing factors. Clinical, radiographic, and hematologic abnormalities common among most of these sea turtles include the following: positive buoyancy; lethargy; inappetence; regurgitation; obstipation; dilated bowel and accumulation of oral contrast material; anemia; hypoglycemia; hypoalbuminemia; hypocalcemia; and elevated creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, and blood urea nitrogen. Although these abnormalities are nonspecific with many possible contributing factors, intestinal disease, including strictures, should be considered a differential in green sea turtles that demonstrate all or a combination of these clinical findings. Although diagnostic imaging, including radiographs, computed tomography, or magnetic resonance imaging, are important in determining a cause for suspected gastrointestinal disease and identifying an anatomic location of obstruction, intestinal strictures were not successfully identified when using these imaging modalities. Lower gastrointestinal contrast radiography, paired with the use of oral contrast, was useful in identifying the suspected site of intestinal obstruction in two cases. Colonoscopy was instrumental in visually diagnosing intestinal stricture in one case. Therefore, lower gastrointestinal contrast radiography and colonoscopy should be considered in green turtles when gastrointestinal obstructions are suspected. Although partial strictures of the cloacal opening may be identified on gross examination and might be managed with appropriate medical treatment, surgical intervention or humane euthanasia are likely the only options for sea turtles once small or large intestinal strictures have formed.